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Keenan Allen listed as limited again
Colts WR Keenan Allen a limited participant Thursday because of groin issue
Kentucky Gov. Andy Beshear and Razorbacks coach John Calipari talk politics and basketball during appearance in Little Rock
Kentucky Gov. Andy Beshear spoke with John Calipari, the head coach of the University of Arkansas men's basketball team, during an appearance in Little Rock on Thursday.
Lions Welcome Key Figure Back to Practice
The Detroit Lions were back on the practice field on Thursday as they continue preparations to face the Carolina Panthers on Sunday evening, in which they’ll look to improve their record to 3-1.Detroit, who remains shorthanded with several key players still missing because of injury, did get a bit of good news with regard to […] The post Lions Welcome Key Figure Back to Practice appeared first on HEAVY.
Double-digit health insurance increases will hit individual and small group plans in 2027, again
Hundreds of thousands of Minnesotans are facing significantly more expensive health insurance next year. The average increase for individual and small group insurance plans is 17% for 2027, the state’s Department of Commerce announced Thursday, raising costs for the 203,000 and 184,000 Minnesotans covered by individual and small group plans respectively. Individuals and their families […]
WATCH: NASA launches Crew-13 to International Space Station
Four astronauts rocketed into orbit Thursday on a space station mission that will stretch until spring, among them a Canadian whose wife will give birth while he’s away.
EXCLUSIVE: Embrace Trump or not?; Amendment 3's carrots and sticks
Republicans damned if they embrace President Donald Trump, and damned if they don't. Amendment 3 offers tax cuts — but at what cost?
Victor Wembanyama slams players promoting sports betting weeks after LeBron James announces Polymarket deal
Victor Wembanyama made his stance on sports betting very clear. On Thursday, the Spurs superstar spoke to reporters at training camp and answered whether he’d ever sign a deal with...
Trump says he’s ‘looking at’ opening US military base in Venezuela
President Donald Trump is open to the prospect of a U.S. military base in Venezuela or somewhere else in South America. “We’re looking at doing a lot of things,” Trump told reporters on Thursday. “We’re getting along very well, as you know, and Venezuela has been a great situation. The people are happy, and I’m […]
Nations League: Portugal win first game without CR7, Germany click
Four matches continued another round of the 2026/27 UEFA Nations League this Thursday (1st).The games were valid for Groups 2 and 4.At home, Germany beat Serbia 2-0, with goals from Bischof and Wirtz....
Senate Majority Leader Erin Murphy Responds to Health Insurance Rate Increases
SAINT PAUL, Minn. – On Thursday, the Minnesota Department of Commerce announced the health insurance rate increases facing Minnesotans next year. For 203,000 consumers who purchase insurance on the individual market, rates will increase between 9.9 and 21.1 percent; for 184,000 Minnesotans who are insured on small group market plans, rates will increase between 10.6
Judge blocks Trump from firing Seattle US attorney who had job for an hour
President Donald Trump cannot fire US attorneys who have been appointed by courts, a federal judge in Washington state said Thursday in a first-of-its-kind ruling that tests the scope of a president’s removal power under the Constitution.
2 federally charged after kratom seized at Oxford, MS business
MEMPHIS, Tenn. — Two men accused of possessing kratom and illegal substances at an Oxford, Mississippi, business have been federally charged Thursday. Yahya Mohamed Mosleh, 51, and Islam Moha…
Getting too many political texts? Here’s how Texans can stop or block them
How to stop political texts on your phone in Texas before Election Day
#9OT high school football week 6 schedule
EL PASO, Texas (KTSM) — Week 6 of high school football in the Borderland is gearing up, and KTSM 9 News’ 9 Overtime show is ready to bring you all the action! On Thursday, Oct. 1, the El Paso Broadcast Company will livestream the Eastwood vs. Pebble Hills game for Thursday Night Lights, scheduled to […]
Rapper Rick Ross charged with battery after domestic violence accusation
MIAMI BEACH, Fla. — Rapper Rick Ross was arrested in Miami Beach early Thursday and charged with battery related to a domestic violence accusation, authorities said.
Disney plans restructuring of television business, WSJ reports
Oct 1 (Reuters) - Walt Disney plans a restructuring of its television business that could result in hundreds of layoffs and the consolidation of divisions, the Wall Street Journal reported on Thursday, citing people familiar with the matter.
WTA Unveils 2027 Calendar With Pay Milestone
The WTA has unveiled its 2027 calendar, pairing a historic pay milestone with a lighter load for its top players. It will span 55 events across 26 countries and territories and build toward the WTA Finals in its new home of Charlotte, North Carolina. Announced on Thursday, the calendar adds a new WTA 250 tournament …
Arkansas, Kentucky each awarded $10M grants for maternal health efforts
A nonprofit founded by philanthropist Olivia Walton announced Thursday it is awarding $10 million grants to Arkansas and Kentucky to improve maternal health in rural communities.
Battle of the Bays features winless Buccaneers and struggling Packers
The Tampa Bay Buccaneers (0-3) need a victory even more than the Green Bay Packers (1-2) on Sunday. At least Green Bay has quarterback Jordan Love. Tampa Bay is turning to undrafted rookie Jalon Daniels after Baker Mayfield dislocated his right thumb in a loss to Minnesota.
Storm Advisory: Newsy Thursday with Primeau and Hurricanes TV coverage
Two bigger bits of news for fans about who’s going to Chicago and who else can watch
The business of water conservation in one of the world’s driest countries
Michigan high school football rankings: Top 20 ahead of Week 6 (Sept. 29)
We’re midway through the Michigan high school football season, and the Week 5 edition of the Power Poll arrives with plenty to sort through.
🚨Line-ups ready: stern European test for Real Madrid
Manchester’s Joie Stadium hosts one of the standout fixtures of the second matchday of the Women’s Champions League this Thursday (21:00; Disney+), as Real Madrid visit Manchester City. Pau Quesad...
Lions injury updates: Defensive end D.J. Wonnum returns to practice
Only one player on the Detroit Lions' active roster wasn't at practice Thursday, Oct. 1, ahead of their game against the Carolina Panthers.
Judge permanently dismisses Trump administration's case charging ex-Olympian with Reflecting Pool vandalism
A judge in the nation’s capital agreed on Thursday to permanently dismiss a criminal case charging a former Olympian with vandalizing the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, a move that could prevent federal prosecutors from reviving the case under political pressure from President Donald Trump.
Confirmed lineups: Germany vs Serbia
After drawing 1-1 with the Netherlands and losing 0-1 to Greece, Germany are still searching for their first win under Jürgen Klopp heading into Thursday night's 2026/27 UEFA Nations League home game...
Midtown Costco set to close, reopen as business center
The Costco location in Midtown, which has operated for more than 25 years, is closing its doors Thursday evening.
Stihl taps Caterpillar vet as new president
Stihl Inc. named Caterpillar veteran Sean McGinnis its new president effective immediately Thursday.
Rapper Rick Ross charged with battery after domestic violence accusation
Authorities say rapper Rick Ross was arrested early Thursday in Miami Beach and charged with battery related to a domestic violence accusation. Online court records show Ross, whose legal name
Rapper Rick Ross charged with battery after domestic violence accusation
Authorities say rapper Rick Ross was arrested early Thursday in Miami Beach and charged with battery related to a domestic violence accusation. Online court records show Ross, whose legal name
Alabama Awards Nearly $55 Million in Additional Rural Health Grants
Alabama Awards Nearly $55 Million in Additional Rural Health GrantsMONTGOMERY, Ala. — Alabama Gov. Kay Ivey announced Thursday that 34 grants totaling nearly $5
The 5 absolute best space images of 2026 (so far)
A dark, shark-shaped nebula 650 light-years away has won Astronomy Photographer of the Year 2026. See the overall winner and the best category images.
Governor Ivey Announces Additional Alabama Rural Health Transformation Program Grants Totaling Nearly $55 Million -
MONTGOMERY – Governor Kay Ivey on Thursday announced the awarding of 34 grants totaling nearly $55 million to healthcare providers and institutions throughout the state as part of the second round of Alabama Rural Health Transformation Program (ARHTP) funding for 2026. … Continued
A new East-West divide: Current political crisis and state of the union in Germany
East-West divide in Germany will continue to deepen as the political crisis persists and the general mood in the country remains gloomy | Anadolu
007 First Light's First DLC Out Now, Adds New Game Plus
The 007 First Light Extended Operations DLC launches for free today, and adds five different missions to the TacSim mode, along with New Game Plus, new outfits and a photo mode that was somehow missing from the game at launch.
‘Gobsmacked’: Florida parents, teachers decry changes to science education
The state’s education commissioner, responding to criticism, said Thursday he was “not advocating religious influence in the standards.”
Why Is AMC Stock Falling on Thursday?
AMC Entertainment stock trades lower Thursday due to broad market pressure and profit-taking following a recent price surge.
UTA Shakes Up Filmed Entertainment Group: Matt Rice Named President
The exec will be joined by newly elevated managing partners Allan Haldeman, Blair Kohan, Jay Gassner and Julien Thuan, as well as a Filmed Entertainment Board.
Rachaad White idle Thursday
Washington Commanders RB Rachaad White (shoulder) is out of practice Thursday.
Best Pittsburgh Steelers player prop bets for Week 4
The Pittsburgh Steelers visit the Cleveland Browns on Thursday Night Football. Here are the three player prop bets for the Steelers.
Rapper Rick Ross charged with battery after domestic violence accusation
Authorities say rapper Rick Ross was arrested early Thursday in Miami Beach and charged with battery related to a domestic violence accusation. Online court records show Ross, whose legal name
Rapper Rick Ross charged with battery after domestic violence accusation
Authorities say rapper Rick Ross was arrested early Thursday in Miami Beach and charged with battery related to a domestic violence accusation. Online court records show Ross, whose legal name
Judge cites Trump’s threats in permanent dismissal of Reflecting Pool damage charges against Olympian
A federal judge on Thursday dismissed charges against David Hearn, the former US Olympian initially accused of damaging the Reflecting Pool at the Lincoln Memorial with prejudice, citing President Donald Trump’s comments to ensure charges cannot be brought in the future.
Joy Behar suffers major injury, misses “The View” as Sunny Hostin makes rare fill-in appearance as moderator
The 83-year-old was MIA from Thursday’s episode of the talk show.
Kid Rock launches Christian era with new single 'James 1:17'
DETROIT — Kid Rock has launched his new Christian era. Overnight on Thursday, the Detroit rocker released his new single, the praise-heavy "James 1:17 (Jesus is King)," to streaming services.
COO Noreen Killen tapped as interim CEO of Mid-America Science Museum
Noreen Killen will step into the role of interim CEO of Mid-America Science Museum, its board of directors announced Thursday.
Entertainment this week: Party in the Sky, A Liar’s Cruise and more
Thursday, October 1 Football Fun at Alibi – 12-9 p.m., Alibi Ale Works – Truckee Public House, 10069 Bridge St. Watch football at Alibi. Come save your spot and get some beer for every NFL...
Rapper Rick Ross charged with battery after domestic violence accusation
Authorities say rapper Rick Ross was arrested early Thursday in Miami Beach and charged with battery related to a domestic violence accusation. Online court records show Ross, whose legal name
Judge bars Jeanine Pirro’s office from bringing Reflecting Pool case after Trump comments
Judge Todd Edelman entered an order on Thursday that dismissed the case against David “Davey” Hearn with prejudice.
Jason Jones, Co-Creator of Halo and Destiny and Co-Founder of Bungie, Announces New Studio
Jason Jones, one of the co-founders of Bungie and a co-creator of Halo and Destiny, has announced his new studio, Stone Kite, which will work on projects across various entertainment mediums. The studio's first release is One Zero One, a limited-series comic book based on a manuscript written by Jones.
Winner of Nikon microscopy photo contest faces criticism over AI usage
The organizers of a highly regarded scientific photography contest are reviewing this year’s winning entry following criticism over the use of AI.
Republicans’ New Health Care Budget Cuts Take Effect Today, Stripping Lifesaving Health Coverage from Lawfully Present Immigrant Children and Families
Anthony Wright, executive director of Families USA, issued the following statement in response to the new H.R. 1 restrictions.
Sea change: WildFin aims to improve fish behavior analysis in the wild
A doctoral student and a team of Cornell researchers and colleagues created WildFin, a data set composed of nine hours of video that they labeled frame-by-frame with fish behaviors.
Aaron Rodgers playing final 'Thursday Night Football' game vs Browns
When is Aaron Rodgers retiring? The Pittsburgh Steelers' veteran quarterback is in his 22nd NFL season.
Phillies Talk: Phillies force decisive Game 3 after CRAZY win in Game 2
Coming off a WILD win in Game 2 against the Braves, Sean Kane and Spencer McKercher break down the win and look ahead to a decisive Game 3.
Afternoon Explorations at Roper Mountain Science Center: Your Thursday & Friday Ticket to Dinosaurs, Stingrays, and the Rainforest (2026–2027)
Have you always wondered how you can visit Roper Mountain Science Center? Afternoon Explorations! From September to May, explore on select Thursdays and Fridays.
90% of Life Sciences Manufacturers Say Digital Transformation Is Now Business-Critical, According to New Rockwell Automation Report
/PRNewswire/ -- Rockwell Automation, Inc. (NYSE: ROK), the global leader in industrial automation and digital transformation, today released "The New Operating...
90% of Life Sciences Manufacturers Say Digital Transformation Is Now Business-Critical, According to New Rockwell Automation Report
/PRNewswire/ -- Rockwell Automation, Inc. (NYSE: ROK), the global leader in industrial automation and digital transformation, today released "The New Operating...
Supreme Court to review key part of Trump’s immigration policy
(CNN) — The Supreme Court agreed Thursday to review President Donald Trump’s policy of imposing mandatory detention without bond hearings for people who entered the country illegally, taking up one
12 spooky new movies and shows to watch this Halloween, from 'Carrie' to 'Clayface'
Whether you want jump scares, psychological thrills or something the whole family can handle, October's lineup has you covered.
Matthew Golden Left Heartbroken by Tough Packers News
The blows just keep on coming to Matthew Golden and the Green Bay Packers, who are only 1-2 after three weeks of the 2026 NFL season. Even in their lone win thus far against the New York Jets in Week 2, the Packers didn’t look particularly convincing, and making matters worse was the neck injury […] The post Matthew Golden Left Heartbroken by Tough Packers News appeared first on Gridiron Heroics.
The ultimate cozy fall watchlist: 26 TV shows and movies for every autumn mood
'Tis the season to curl up on the couch with a classic fall film and pretend we're in Stars Hollow.
Thousands in WA lose Apple Health coverage as Trump’s changes take effect
About 11,000 refugees, asylees and other lawful immigrants in Washington will lose Apple Health insurance coverage starting Thursday, part of H.R.1. changes.
Mets Morning News: Mets face offseason questions
Your Thursday morning dose of Mets and Major League Baseball news, notes, and links.
BTIG Research Cuts Flutter Entertainment (NYSE:FLUT) Price Target to $110.00
BTIG Research cut their price objective on Flutter Entertainment from $113.00 to $110.00 and set a "buy" rating for the company in a research report on Thursday.
Tiffani Thiessen's teen daughter has a blunt take on her '90s TV hits
Tiffani Thiessen on "Coven Academy," looking back on her '90s sex-symbol image and what she's teaching her kids by aging naturally.
Inside Business Matters: Micron, forever chemicals, data centers, more (how to sign up)
Every Thursday, the Business Matters newsletter gathers Syracuse.com’s most insightful, noteworthy business journalism for readers.
Good science requires much more than evidence
Empiricists believe that scientific theories are true only if they make correct empirical predictions: if we can't verify these predictions, then there is no reason to expect that they tell us anything about reality. However, Professor of Philosophy at King's College David Kyle Johnson argues that this is mistaken. In response to Bas van Fraassen, who has written on this subject for the IAI, he argues that we have many reasons for believing a theory to be true, such as it being parsimonious and having large scope — qualities which have been used throughout the history of science as criteria for judging theories. In 2024, Princeton philosopher Bas van Fraassen wrote a short article for IAI News entitled “Science Does not Describe Reality: The Limits and Benefits of Explanation.” At the time, I was working on two projects (a science book and a Great Course) that, when completed, would (among other things) defend science’s ability to describe reality. I wanted to write a response to van Fraassen, but the projects demanded too much of my attention. But now that those projects are complete, I am in a position to explain the objections to van Fraassen’s thesis. Summarizing van Fraassen’s argumentIn a nutshell, his argument is this: What scientists do is make predictions based on theories and then invite others to test to see whether those predictions are borne out. “If theory T is right, result R should happen in experimental condition C.” Many think that running an experiment that shows that R happens in condition C is proof that theory T is true (and should be believed). But, van Fraassen argues, that R happened in condition C is only a reason to think that R happens in condition C. That’s the only observable, or empirical, result we can actually see, so that is all that we are really justified in believing. (The underlying theory that made that prediction still may or may not be true.) That is why he calls those who accept his position “empiricists.”Before I explain what is wrong with this position, let me explain what it gets right. What van Fraassen Gets RightFirst, a theory correctly predicting the results of an experiment is not, strictly speaking, “proof” that the theory is correct. The basic line of reasoning is this:If the theory T is true, result R should happen. Result R did happen. Thus, theory T is true.In other words:“If T then R. R. Thus, T.”This is a deductively invalid, fallacious mode of reasoning, called “affirming the consequent.” Those premises do not guarantee that the conclusion follows. “If I am in Pennsylvania, then I am in the USA. I am in the USA. Thus, I am in Pennsylvania.” Clearly that argument doesn’t guarantee its conclusion; neither does the above argument.However, science is not a deductive method of reasoning; it is an inductive one. And inductive arguments merely try to raise the probability of their conclusion, not “prove” them for certain. Thus, the fact that an experimental result doesn’t prove a theory is true is irrelevant; it’s not supposed to. That is not what scientific reasoning is about.___If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational.___Second, it’s also true that a single experimental result doesn’t provide enough justification to believe that a theory is true. Scientists do not come to a consensus about whether a theory is true by looking at a single experiment; they look at all the evidence to determine where the preponderance of evidence points. The mere fact that I am in the USA raises the probability that I am in Pennsylvania, but not nearly enough to conclude that I am in Pennsylvania. However, if I am also regularly encountering people wearing Eagles and Phillies hats and seeing advertisements for Founding Father tours, I probably am. In the same way, a theory successfully predicting the outcome of one experiment is not enough to conclude that it is true; but if a theory makes a wide variety of predictions that are all vindicated by multiple experiments, performed by many different groups and people, all actively trying to prove the theory false (which is what good scientific experiments are designed to do)—that is a good reason to conclude that the theory is true. In other words, if you repeatedly try to prove something false but can’t, that is a very good indication that it isn’t. The problem of underdeterminationIn reply, those whom van Fraassen calls “empiricists” often point to the “problem of underdetermination.” For any given theory that makes successful predictions about what happens in experimental conditions, there are countless other possible theories that make exactly the same predictions—and since they do, the experimental evidence in question is just as much reason to accept any of those theories as it is to accept our original one. Thus, the argument goes, we have no way of knowing whether our original theory is true, or one of the other “predictively equivalent” theories is true. SUGGESTED VIEWING How Occam's Razor changed the world With Johnjoe McFadden As an example of underdetermination, philosophers often offer this example. The evidence of fossils seems to provide reason to conclude that the universe is quite old; ancient fossils are what the “ancient universe” hypothesis predicts. But it’s also possible that God created an ancient-looking universe 200 years ago, complete with a “fake” fossil record for us to find, to make it look old. The existence of fossils is what that theory predicts too. So, the argument goes, the fossil record can’t be used as evidence that the universe is ancient; the fossil record supports the “200-year-old ancient-looking universe” theory just as much. The problem of underdetermination points out that, for any theory with supporting evidence, we could invent another completely different theory that predicts exactly the same evidence, and thus undermine that evidence’s ability to support the original theory.But this “argument from underdetermination” betrays a fundamental misunderstanding of what scientific reasoning is and how it works. To explain, let me use another rather strange (but very real and commonly discussed) philosophical thought experiment called “The Grue Problem.” The “Grue” ProblemSuppose I want to know what color emeralds are, so I observe a few, see that they all appear green, and form the theory that “all emeralds are green.” I thus predict that the next 100 emeralds I find will also appear to be green. And let’s say that happens, and so I thus conclude that my theory that all emeralds are green is true. Now, one might rightly point out that I don’t know for sure that all emeralds are green—I have not seen them all. Maybe some I haven’t found yet are blue. Fair enough. After all, we used to think that all swans were white, until we found some black ones. But let’s say that I go on a quest and collect every emerald in the universe—and, for the sake of the argument, let’s say I can do this, and can even know that I have every one of them. So, I collect them all, look at them all, and verify that they all appear green. Can’t I now rightly conclude that all emeralds are green?Inspired by the problem of underdetermination, a friend might argue that I cannot.Sure, they all appear green now—but there could be another kind of color called “grue.” Something is grue if it is green up to a certain point in time, but then spontaneously turns blue. And there could be an infinite number of “shades” of grue. Something that is one shade of grue will turn blue at noon today, but something that is another shade of grue will turn blue at noon tomorrow, etc. So yes, the emeralds appear green now; and since they haven’t turned blue yet, they are not some “past” shade of grue. But they might be some “future” shade of grue (e.g., they may turn blue at noon tomorrow). And since all future shades of grue are consistent with “being green up to this point in time,” the evidence you have is completely consistent with the notion that all emeralds are some future shade of grue, rather than green. Indeed, that they would appear green until now is what the “some future shade of grue” hypothesis predicts. So, we have just as much reason to conclude that all emeralds are some shade of grue as we do to conclude that they are green.You’re probably thinking “It’s not equally possible that the emeralds are grue; they are obviously green.” You are right! But explaining why your instinctive reaction to my friend’s argument is correct will help inform why van Fraassen’s “empiricist” is wrong and science actually does describe reality.The main mistake my friend makes is in thinking that the “empirical evidence” (of all the emeralds appearing green) is (or even should be) all I am using to draw the conclusion that all emeralds are green. It is not. I am also considering known facts about how colors typically work; things don’t usually change color, and when they do, they don’t do so suddenly, without cause, and all at once. So, even though the simple evidence of the emeralds all appearing green up to this point is consistent with them being some future shade of grue—that is even what the grue hypothesis “predicts”—it is still exceedingly unlikely that they are. The hypothesis that they are green is much more likely. Understanding science refutes the problem of underdetermination The misunderstanding about science that the “empiricist” pointing to “the problem of underdetermination” makes is similar to the one that my friend made. Science is not just about considering experimental evidence; in fact, it’s not even just about considering empirical evidence. As Ernan McMullin and many other philosophers of science have pointed out, the inference that makes science is “inference to the best explanation” (sometimes called “abduction” or “retroduction” by McMullin). While, depending on the circumstances, scientists use many different kinds of reasoning, science as a whole is, simply put, the process of considering multiple competing explanations and comparing them to certain criteria—explanatory criteria (the kinds of things explanations must be and do, by definition, to be a good explanation)—to see which explanation is the best.And these criteria do not deal only with empirical results. Yes, successful predictions raise the probability of a hypothesis, but it’s also the case that the more new assumptions a theory makes, the less likely it is to be true; every new assumption presents an opportunity for the theory to be false. (The fewer assumptions a theory makes, the simpler or “more parsimonious” it is said to be.) Likewise, the more existing evidence a theory contradicts, the less likely it is, because in order for a theory to be true, every piece of evidence it contradicts has to be somehow faulty. (The fewer established theories a new theory contradicts, the more “conservative” it is said to be.) And, obviously, the more something explains, the better explanation it is. (This is called having “scope.”) If a theory raises unanswerable questions, it’s not expanding our understanding, and thus is not wide-scoping. Scientists consider all these things when deciding which theory to accept, because the theory that adheres best to these explanatory criteria is most likely to be true.___the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth.___The reason the grue hypothesis is no good is because it invents an entirely new kind of color—not just a new shade, but an entirely different category of color (a different way colors work)—and thus is not parsimonious. It raises unanswerable questions about how and why emeralds would just spontaneously change from green to blue (and thus does not have wide scope). And it contradicts what is already well established about how color works (and thus is unconservative).The theories that the problem of underdetermination points to do the same thing. Yes, the theory that God created an “ancient-looking universe” (complete with an ancient-looking fossil record) two hundred years ago is also consistent with the empirical evidence (of a fossil record) that presently exists; but that theory is monumentally unparsimonious (it requires many extra assumptions about infinite entities) and not wide-scoping (it raises unanswerable questions about why God would do such a thing). So, I can rationally conclude that it is false.Indeed, the history of science includes many examples of theories that were rejected because they lacked parsimony and/or scope, even before their falsity (and the truth of their competing theory) was confirmed by observation. As I point out in my book, geocentrism was rejected by the scientific community because it lacked parsimony, almost 200 years before the observation of parallax confirmed that the Earth moves around the sun. And the continuum theory of matter was completely rejected by 1860, because it couldn’t explain chemical reactions or organize matter into a periodic table, even though the experiments that eventually confirmed atomic theory weren’t even proposed until the 1870s. Solving the best of a bad lot problemIn response, the “empiricists” are likely to object, this time pointing to the “best of a bad lot” problem. “We have no reason to conclude that an explanation that has been shown to be better than others is true because we have no guarantee that the true theory was among those that we were considering.” If you have a “lot” (a collection) of poor explanations, even the best one is not true.The responses to this problem, however, are numerous. Peter Lipton argues that the set of hypotheses that scientists consider are not just randomly selected and thus unlikely to contain a theory that is true; they use existing knowledge to home in on what is most likely to be true. A doctor trying to explain abdominal pain is not going to bother wondering whether demons are causing it; they are going to stick with things like appendicitis and kidney stones, because they are most likely. Further, despite its name, inference to the best explanation is not just the process of comparing hypotheses and accepting the best one; we also want one that is a good explanation in its own right. If it’s not, we are going to keep looking until we find an explanation that is. And while that process does not guarantee that we will come across the exact truth, it’s very likely that the theory that emerges as the best will be at least approximately true, and thus we will be justified in believing it. And lastly, as I point out in my book, although many theories not based in scientific evidence (like geocentrism and continuum theory) have been completely overturned, science almost always progresses by the refinement of scientifically established theories—not their replacement. (Although our sun is not the center of the universe, heliocentrism was our first step in understanding the Earth’s true place in the universe.) So even if a theory we accept today may not be completely right, accepting it is a step on the journey toward the complete truth. The example of atomic theoryNow, it’s worth pointing out that most empiricists are not skeptical of all scientific theories; they are only skeptical of the ones that hypothesize the existence of “unobservables.” It’s not like they think that round Earth, heliocentrism, and germ theory are just useful (but untrue) “instruments” for making predictions about how to most efficiently navigate the seas, predict planetary motion, and treat diseases. They admit that the Earth actually is round, that the planets revolve around the sun, and that germs exist and cause disease. These facts and entities can be observed; the theories that suggest they exist are true. It’s only when theories start hypothesizing the existence of unobservables—like electrons, or quantum fields—that can’t be observed directly, that we should start doubting the theories’ truth. And to be fair to van Fraassen, in this published work, he doesn’t really say that we should doubt the truth of such theories. Only that scientific reasoning does not rationally force us to accept them as true. Skepticism, or agnosticism, he argues, is warranted. SUGGESTED READING Science is based in metaphor By Andrew Reynolds But the history of atomic theory throws a monkey wrench into that argument. Atoms used to be unobservable; again, scientists first accepted the theory that they exist because it had such grandiose explanatory power. But then atoms were seen with electron microscopes. They thus moved into the category of the observable. But this didn’t substantially change anything about what scientists were justified in believing; it certainly didn’t change any “atomic skeptics’” minds. It just confirmed what everyone already knew! If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational. The fact that the thing itself is not technically observable does not make doubting its existence rational.What’s more, the atoms were seen with an electron microscope. But electrons are themselves unobservable. How can an electron microscope reveal an atom if electrons are not real? This leads us to what is famously known as Hilary Putnam’s “miracle argument.” It’s (not) a miraclePhilosopher Hilary Putnam’s miracle argument is somewhat famous. Basically, he argued that a scientific theory being able to repeatedly make successful predictions—even about unobservables—without being at least approximately true would require a “miracle.” In other words, it would be such an improbable occurrence that it could not rationally be believed—the better explanation for why scientific theories about unobservables make the right predictions is because the unobservable entities and structures they hypothesize exist.Van Fraassen has addressed this argument. Indeed, in his original article, where he references Alison Gopnik’s point about orgasms not being “necessary for procreation” even though the desire for orgasm “drives the creation of progeny,” he is pointing to his own argument about how organisms are not naturally selected by evolution to get true beliefs; to the extent that belief-forming processes are selected for, the ones that are selected are the ones that are useful for survival—not the ones that produce true beliefs. In the same way, van Fraassen argues, scientific theories are accepted, not because they are true, but because they aren’t falsified; they make successful predictions; that’s what makes them “stick around.” So, the fact that they make successful predictions (and thus became accepted) is not a reason to think they are true.This argument is similar to C. S. Lewis’s “argument from reason,” which he used to argue against evolution: “The truth of evolution undercuts our ability to know that it is true.” Lewis’ argument famously failed; Elizabeth Anscombe, by Lewis’s own admission, demolished Lewis in a debate on the topic, and I have explained elsewhere why modified versions of the argument fail as well. In short, it’s because it fails to recognize that a belief-forming process can make an organism more likely to survive because it reliably produces true beliefs. It is therefore not the case that beliefs generated by naturally selected belief-forming processes are automatically false or unjustified.In the same way, the reason a theory “sticks around” could be because it’s not falsified, because it “makes correct predictions.” But the reason it makes correct predictions is most likely because it is true. (In pointing this out, I am echoing the arguments of Musgrave, Lipton, Psillos, and Kitcher, who refuted van Fraassen’s argument and analogy long before his 2024 article.) It would be a huge coincidence that it could do so without being true. And that is the point of Putnam’s miracle argument. Thus, contrary to van Fraassen’s suggestion, the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth. ConclusionLet me close by saying something about the fact that empiricists don’t doubt the truth of all scientific theories, just the ones that hypothesize unobservables. In today’s society, this theory is dangerous to espouse publicly. The nuance between being skeptical about all of science, and just the highly technical theories about unobservables, is guaranteed to be lost to the average reader. And there is so much unjustified skepticism and doubt about the findings of science and experts that a headline like “Science Does Not Describe Reality” could easily fuel the anti-science movement, worsen climate change denial and cause the next pandemic.This is why I believe it was important to still respond to van Fraassen’s article, a full two years after he wrote it. Not only, as I have argued, does it represent a philosophically inaccurate view of how scientific reasoning works and what scientific reasoning can do, but it is a dangerous view to boot. It should thus be rejected.
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