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UC asks judge to dismiss DOJ's UCLA antisemitism lawsuit
UC asked a federal judge to throw out the DOJ's Title VI lawsuit accusing UCLA of ignoring antisemitism, calling the case political coercion.
Coconino County Flood Control District creates hands-on experiences at 2026 Science in the Park
Coconino County Flood Control District participated in Science in the Park last weekend as part of the annual Flagstaff Festival of Science. The District educated attendees about the post-wildfire flo
Marion man found not guilty of murdering son seeking outside mental health evaluation
A Marion man found not guilty by reason of insanity for strangling his son to death is seeking outside mental health evaluation at the facility he’s in.
Texans brass see content studio as promising natural offshoot of club business
The Houston Texans have launched Hustle Town Studio, which they hope offers new revenue upside by branching out of a football focus into cultural works.
Kentucky Gov. Andy Beshear and Razorbacks coach John Calipari talk politics and basketball during appearance in Little Rock
Kentucky Gov. Andy Beshear spoke with John Calipari, the head coach of the University of Arkansas men's basketball team, during an appearance in Little Rock on Thursday.
Jim Carrey marries girlfriend Min Ah in Los Angeles
Jim Carrey has tied the knot with Min Ah, his girlfriend of several years, The Times confirms. This is the third marriage for the 'Sonic the Hedgehog' actor.
Trump memecoin plans another gala amid backlash to self-enrichment
The latest event will take place next month at the president’s golf club in Northern Virginia.
Trump says planning midterm convention during NFL opener was ‘stupid’
President Donald Trump acknowledged that scheduling the Republican National Committee’s midterm convention during the NFL’s opening game of the 2026 season was not the best idea. The president sat down with Time magazine for an interview this week and was asked about the possibility of Democrats taking control of Congress in the midterm elections. He […]
50 children in our area hit by cars every year; toxic pond water in Centennial Park; ‘gas station heroin’; plus other stories with Vanderbilt Health sources
In a news report following a Murfreesboro child who was killed by an automobile, reporter Amber Jayanth from WSMV Channel 4 News cited statistics gathered at Monroe Carell Jr. Children’s Hospital at Vanderbilt about pediatric pedestrian injuries. Trauma registry data from Monroe Carell indicates that about 50 children per year on average are treated after being hit by a car. William Schaffner, MD, Professor of Preventive Medicine, was quoted by several news outlets about public health issues, including: CNN (mRNA flu vaccine); ABC News and the American Journal of Managed Care (Pennsylvania measles outbreak); News Channel 5 (blue-green algae in the pond at Centennial Park, which can release toxins that make people and pets sick). WSMV Channel 4 News interviewed Saumya Aujla, MD, Assistant Professor of Clinical Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, about the health risks of kratom, sometimes called “gas station heroin,” and why Tennessee banned the drug. WTVF News Channel 5 interviewed Brianna Smith, MD, Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, Hematology/Oncology at Monroe Carell Jr. Children’s Hospital at Vanderbilt for a piece on Childhood Cancer Awareness Month. Prevention interviewed Mitchell Gigandet, MD, Assistant Professor in the Neuro-Sleep Division, for a story about MDPI research on caffeine that used EEG imaging to see how the drug impacts sleep. It was found that caffeine may make sleep less restorative even when you fall asleep normally and stay in bed for eight hours. The Wall Street Journal reporter Laura Landro interviewed Joseph Schlesinger, MD, Professor of Anesthesiology Critical Care Medicine, for a story about ICU alarms keeping patients from getting sleep and creating alarm fatigue for nurses. Billboard reporter Melinda Newman interviewed country star Dasha about her upcoming vocal surgery at Vanderbilt Health. The story was picked up by numerous print and radio outlets including People.
Campaign-style Trump ads use money meant for border security, memorials
The White House Office of Management and Budget added $20 million to the pot for commemorative events a day before DHS awarded an advertising contract of the same amount.
Mo. files new proposed regulations for cannabis business ownership, product recalls
The Department of Health and Senior Services recently filed proposed rule amendments regarding cannabis facilities in Missouri.
Can dancing improve brain health?
One doctor is challenging us to rethink the way we think about healing by combining modern medicine and ancestral wisdom.
Rapper Rick Ross charged with battery after domestic violence accusation
MIAMI BEACH, Fla. — Rapper Rick Ross was arrested in Miami Beach early Thursday and charged with battery related to a domestic violence accusation, authorities said.
'It's a nightmare.' Former refugee, professor on Trump's new Medicaid policy
Starting Oct. 1, many immigrants who are here legally lose their Medicaid coverage because of the Republican budget bill passed last year.
Wes Moore forms bipartisan governors group on AI, citing federal inaction
Gov. Wes Moore of Maryland is forming a bipartisan group of governors to address concerns about artificial intelligence
Trump sends out $500 ACA refunds and a letter promoting his record
The rebate checks are headed to nearly 1 million people President Donald Trump says were overcharged under the Affordable Care Act.
Restaurant Sazani Oceana closes after 8 months in business at Shaker Square
After eight months in business, an upscale seafood restaurant on Cleveland’s Shaker Square is closing its doors.
Marion retailer Purple Wagon a finalist in statewide contest
Longtime Uptown Marion retailer The Purple Wagon is one of five businesses from across the state in the running to receive up to $25,000 in Main Street Iowa’s Open 4
The Top Governors' Races to Watch This November
Republicans are on the defensive going into the 2026 midterms, when 36 gubernatorial seats are up for grabs. But it’s not all smooth sailing for Democrats.
Huntington Beach council candidates talk business at chamber forum
Ten of the 11 candidates for the council participated in Wednesday night's forum at the Central Library.
How to buy or preorder Amazon's new Kindles and accessories
Most of them aren't out until late October, but two of the updated e-readers will ship immediately.
Arts and Entertainment Agenda, Oct. 2 to 5
Annual ‘John Denver Celebration’, Sept. 30 to Oct. 4 The annual John Denver Celebration, Sept. 30 to Oct. 4, brings fans from around the world to Aspen and Snowmass. Festivities include big concerts, smaller shows,...
Forget the Packing Cubes: Émigré Reworks How Professionals Pack for Business Travel
Hong Kong, HONG KONG, Oct. 01, 2026 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- Émigré, the premium business travel apparel and accessories brand, today announced an ex...
GOP hold on Florida and Texas governors’ races weakens, nonpartisan analyst says
President Donald Trump’s poor ratings contributed to the Cook Political Report shifting both races from “Likely Republican” to “Lean Republican.”
Ray Romano being inducted into LI Music and Entertainment Hall of Fame
Sitcom star Ray Romano and Rory Rosegarten, the executive producer of "Everybody Loves Raymond," will be inducted into the Hall of Fame on Nov. 5.
The Iron Wall in Rabat: Why Morocco’s Political Shift Won’t Touch the Abraham Accords
As Fatima Ezzahra El Mansouri Takes the Helm as Morocco’s First Female Prime Minister, Israel’s Most Resilient North African Alliance Remains Bulletproof
CNN chief Mark Thompson in talks to remain in role after Paramount takes over network
Paramount Chief Executive David Ellison has approached Thompson about staying in charge following the merger with Warner Bros. Discovery.
The Politics of the Planetary
The French philosopher Guy Debord and Danish painter Asger Jorn built their book Mémoires (1959) out of a collage of purloined material. Newspaper clippings, magazine advertisements, cartoons, cutups of maps…
Prime Video Orders Second Season of Reacher Spinoff Neagley
Prime Video has renewed Neagley for a second season after the Reacher spinoff drew 40 million viewers in its first 13 days, Amazon said.
OhioHealth Earns Top Hazardous Waste Management Recognition
OhioHealth earns Clean Harbors’ Best-in-Class designation for its safe, compliant and consistent hazardous waste management practices across the system.
What to know about the U.S. Senate race to replace Sen. Dick Durbin
Lt. Gov. Juliana Stratton, who has served alongside Gov. JB Pritzker since 2018, faces Don Tracy, the former chair of the Illinois Republican Party.
What to know about the race for Illinois governor
Illinois Gov. JB Pritzker, Republican Darren Bailey and independent candidate Collin Corbett are on the ballot in the race for governor in the Nov. 3 general election.
Measure B: San Diego County Health & Safety Act
In this 2026 General Election guide, explore an in-depth explanation of San Diego County's Measure B, including pros and cons, endorsements and key arguments to help voters make informed decisions.
Ph.D. Recipient Dr. Sun Young Park Publishes on Gut Health Advertisement on TikTok
While earning her Ph.D. in Communication Theory and Research from Florida State University’s (FSU) School of Communication, Dr. Sun Young Park collaborated with Drs. Jaejin Lee and Braidyn Lazenby in her publication, “Gut health goes viral: analyzing influencer advertising for dietary supplements on TikTok”. This research examined how TikTok creators discuss gut health and promote…
Trump says Secret Service wants him to ‘take down’ Oval Office
The president also said he is looking into designating the White House room as a “federal landmark,” potentially preserving his changes.
4 takeaways from Trump’s Time magazine interview
Just over a month before the midterm elections, President Donald Trump addressed the top issues confronting his administration in a wide-ranging interview with Time magazine.
California governor rivals clash over costs, homelessness, and Trump in only debate
Steve Hilton cast himself as a change candidate while Xavier Becerra defended his experience in a heated California governor debate.
Wake Forest-CINCIA researchers brief pope on Amazon mercury pollution
"We put more than a decade of Wake Forest and CINCIA-led scientific evidence on mercury contamination in the Amazon directly into the hands of the pope."
Milestone integration for Goshen Health in century long history
WSBT CBS 22 provides news, sports, entertainment and public interest programs to the South Bend, Indiana area including Mishawaka, Notre Dame, Granger, Osceola, Elkhart, Jimtown, Dunlap, New Carlisle, Goshen, Middlebury, Bristol, New Paris, Nappanee, Howe, Lagrange, Topeka, Bourbon, Milford, Syracuse, North Webster, Warsaw, Bremen, Plymouth, Walkerton, Argos, Tippecanoe, Culver, Grovertown, Delong, Rochester, Akron, Winamac, North Judson, LaPorte, North Liberty, Wakarusa, Lapaz, Millersburg, Knox, and Michigan City, Indiana – and these areas of Michigan: St. Joseph, Benton Harbor, Buchanan, Niles, Three Oaks, New Buffalo, Harbert, Bridgeman, Stevensville, Watervliet, Berrien Springs, Dowagiac, Marcellus, Cassopolis, Decatur, Vandalia, Constantine, White Pigeon, Galien and Edwardsburg.
Kato Elected Science Council Head on Shift to Public Corporation
Tokyo, Oct. 1 (Jiji Press)--The Science Council of Japan elected Kazuto Kato, professor emeritus at the Univer…
Entertainment this week: Party in the Sky, A Liar’s Cruise and more
Thursday, October 1 Football Fun at Alibi – 12-9 p.m., Alibi Ale Works – Truckee Public House, 10069 Bridge St. Watch football at Alibi. Come save your spot and get some beer for every NFL...
Nico Paz: The likely heir to Messi’s no. 10
Nico Paz is emerging as the favourite to inherit the legendary no. 10 shirt from Lionel Messi. The 22-year-old underlined his credentials as a contender for the 'throne', in Argentina's thrashing of B...
How Washington Funded the Politicization of Science
Over the last half-decade, the National Science Foundation (NSF) has spent hundreds of millions of dollars on projects designed to influence academic policies, both in the sciences and other disciplines. The aim was to foster a progressive conception of social justice in these fields. In pursuit of this end, the foundation earmarked nearly a million dollars for a project titled “Creating Inclusive Scientific Societies through Policies and Practices,” over a million for a project on “Faculty Online Learning Communities for Gender Equity,” and over $2 million to foster “racial equity focused departmental change.” Through a public records request, I’ve obtained the proposals and progress reports for dozens of NSF grants designed to promote social justice. Although funding for these grants was eventually halted by the Trump administration, the projects illustrate an important facet of recent higher-education policy. Many of the university policies that promised “social transformation” didn’t arise in a vacuum. They were actively encouraged by outside funders—often by the federal government itself. Subscribe Accreditation—the peer-review process which enables universities to receive federal grants and student loans—has recently become a policy battleground, with accreditors wielding significant power over both universities and academic disciplines. In 2020, when Oregon Health and Science University’s medical school issued an extensive diversity action plan—which promised “consequences” for employees who failed to support “DEI, anti-racism and social justice”—it specifically pointed to the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), the medical-school accrediting body, to justify the overhaul. The NSF actively promoted DEI-focused accreditation policies. The proposal for a $1.2 million program on promoting “community engagement” in STEM, which I obtained through a records request, notes that the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology was exploring changes to its criteria “that would incorporate JEDI [justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion].” The proposal promised to “support broader JEDI efforts in the general criteria for engineering.” Another grant funded a conference designed to “identify and share best practices and strategies to integrate IDEA principles in accreditation criteria”—referring to an acronym that stands for “inclusion, diversity, equity, and accessibility.” Scholarly societies have become another flashpoint in debates over higher education. Critics argue that many of these societies, which have the power to shape entire disciplines, have become increasingly politicized. Again, through its giving, the NSF played a role in promoting this politicization. In one million-dollar grant that received funding in 2024, a group of psychologists proposed a series of social-justice reforms to the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues. The proposal, which I obtained via a records request, asserts that “[r]edistributing resources (such as moving different people into leadership roles) is not enough” and that the society’s “governance structures do not yet reflect its stated values of diversity, equity, and inclusion.” Its solution: review and rework the society’s criteria for leadership development, academic awards, conferences, and publications. Adjusting review criteria informed by “intersectionality” designed to fight “epistemic exclusion” is an easy way to introduce de facto ideological litmus tests into the peer-review process. For many of the grants I obtained, such litmus tests seem to be the point. “Academic departments are racialized social systems that produce and sustain the byproducts of systemic racism,” a proposal for a $2.7 million project funded in 2024 asserts, promising to develop “departmentally-focused change efforts that cultivate values, assumptions, and behaviors that advance racial equity.” The University of Illinois Urbana Champaign’s million-dollar “I-ADVANCE” project, which effectively created a small DEI bureaucracy on campus, promised to Embed 28 ADVANCE faculty fellows in STEM departments” to amplify its equity goals. Another $1.2 million project promised to create “faculty online learning communities,” made up of scientists at universities around the country, that would eventually build department-level diversity action plans. “Ultimately,” the proposal asserts, perhaps more perceptively than its authors realized, “both organizational change and intersectionality frameworks deal with power.” Indeed, such grants confer a great deal of power to administrators and scholar-activists, who can even use the mere availability of funding as a tool to advance their causes. That history is worth remembering amid today’s debate over federal involvement in higher education: Washington has been shaping university priorities for years, including by financing efforts to instill progressive ideas about race, gender, and equity into academic institutions—and many of the policies those grants encouraged remain embedded within universities long after the federal money has stopped flowing. John D. Sailer is the director of higher education policy and a senior fellow at Manhattan Institute. Share
Expected Timeline for Mental Health Coverage Rule Slips to 2027
A forthcoming proposal overhauling how the federal government regulates employers’ mental health coverage is now expected next year, according to a legal filing from the Trump administration.
Coastal Health District to host no-cost breast cancer screenings across Georgia counties
Coastal Health District is offering no-cost breast cancer screenings at events across Georgia counties this October. Here is the full list.
FSU and Tallahassee Memorial finalize FSU Health agreement
Both parties announced they are in agreement on lease and operating agreements and other documents outlining their academic and clinical structure.
Phillies Talk: Phillies force decisive Game 3 after CRAZY win in Game 2
Coming off a WILD win in Game 2 against the Braves, Sean Kane and Spencer McKercher break down the win and look ahead to a decisive Game 3.
Utah Jazz Remain Underrated Entering 2026-27 Season
Armed with Jaren Jackson Jr.’s elite defense and Darryn Peterson’s arrival, a revamped roster looks to defy betting lines and vault from the cellar into playoff contention.
Rock Entertainment Group names new chief commercial officer with Blue Jays, Trail Blazers experience
Galen Davies takes over the role after Allison Howard moved her focus to leading the Cleveland Sirens’ business operations.
TikTok added $12 billion to California businesses last year, report says
After being nearly banned in the U.S. over privacy concerns and launching a new U.S. joint venture, TikTok touts its contributions to California's economy.
HOMETOWN HEALTH: Doctors more cautious prescribing anxiety medication, studies show
Prescriptions for the anxiety drug benzodiazepine are declining in the United States.
Elon Musk to return his attention to government, advise Pentagon on future of war
Musk will join Anduril founder Palmer Luckey and former House Speaker Newt Gingrich on a panel for what the Defense Department is calling Project Meridian.
Amazon Refreshes Kindle, Kindle Paperwhite, and Kindle Colorsoft E-Readers With Flush Screens
There are also fun new colors and two page-turning accessories—a wireless remote and a cover case—that keep the e-reader fresh.
Amazon Rolls Out a Cornucopia of New Kindle E-Readers
I go hands-on with the new 6-inch Kindle, Kindle Paperwhite and Kindle Colorsoft, all of which have been modestly upgraded and come in new color options.
Amazon is launching colorful new Kindles — and a case with physical page-turn buttons
You can get them with aluminum cases.
Amazon introduces a completely redesigned Kindle family
The all-new Kindle, Kindle Paperwhite, and Kindle Colorsoft are thinner and lighter with a new display stack and seamless edge-to-edge color across the lineup.
Two Nerazzurri in action in the Nations League
The international action continued on Tuesday 29 September, with two Inter players featuring for their respective national teams: Petar Sučić and Manuel Akanji.Akanji’s Switzerland made it two win...
Good science requires much more than evidence
Empiricists believe that scientific theories are true only if they make correct empirical predictions: if we can't verify these predictions, then there is no reason to expect that they tell us anything about reality. However, Professor of Philosophy at King's College David Kyle Johnson argues that this is mistaken. In response to Bas van Fraassen, who has written on this subject for the IAI, he argues that we have many reasons for believing a theory to be true, such as it being parsimonious and having large scope — qualities which have been used throughout the history of science as criteria for judging theories. In 2024, Princeton philosopher Bas van Fraassen wrote a short article for IAI News entitled “Science Does not Describe Reality: The Limits and Benefits of Explanation.” At the time, I was working on two projects (a science book and a Great Course) that, when completed, would (among other things) defend science’s ability to describe reality. I wanted to write a response to van Fraassen, but the projects demanded too much of my attention. But now that those projects are complete, I am in a position to explain the objections to van Fraassen’s thesis. Summarizing van Fraassen’s argumentIn a nutshell, his argument is this: What scientists do is make predictions based on theories and then invite others to test to see whether those predictions are borne out. “If theory T is right, result R should happen in experimental condition C.” Many think that running an experiment that shows that R happens in condition C is proof that theory T is true (and should be believed). But, van Fraassen argues, that R happened in condition C is only a reason to think that R happens in condition C. That’s the only observable, or empirical, result we can actually see, so that is all that we are really justified in believing. (The underlying theory that made that prediction still may or may not be true.) That is why he calls those who accept his position “empiricists.”Before I explain what is wrong with this position, let me explain what it gets right. What van Fraassen Gets RightFirst, a theory correctly predicting the results of an experiment is not, strictly speaking, “proof” that the theory is correct. The basic line of reasoning is this:If the theory T is true, result R should happen. Result R did happen. Thus, theory T is true.In other words:“If T then R. R. Thus, T.”This is a deductively invalid, fallacious mode of reasoning, called “affirming the consequent.” Those premises do not guarantee that the conclusion follows. “If I am in Pennsylvania, then I am in the USA. I am in the USA. Thus, I am in Pennsylvania.” Clearly that argument doesn’t guarantee its conclusion; neither does the above argument.However, science is not a deductive method of reasoning; it is an inductive one. And inductive arguments merely try to raise the probability of their conclusion, not “prove” them for certain. Thus, the fact that an experimental result doesn’t prove a theory is true is irrelevant; it’s not supposed to. That is not what scientific reasoning is about.___If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational.___Second, it’s also true that a single experimental result doesn’t provide enough justification to believe that a theory is true. Scientists do not come to a consensus about whether a theory is true by looking at a single experiment; they look at all the evidence to determine where the preponderance of evidence points. The mere fact that I am in the USA raises the probability that I am in Pennsylvania, but not nearly enough to conclude that I am in Pennsylvania. However, if I am also regularly encountering people wearing Eagles and Phillies hats and seeing advertisements for Founding Father tours, I probably am. In the same way, a theory successfully predicting the outcome of one experiment is not enough to conclude that it is true; but if a theory makes a wide variety of predictions that are all vindicated by multiple experiments, performed by many different groups and people, all actively trying to prove the theory false (which is what good scientific experiments are designed to do)—that is a good reason to conclude that the theory is true. In other words, if you repeatedly try to prove something false but can’t, that is a very good indication that it isn’t. The problem of underdeterminationIn reply, those whom van Fraassen calls “empiricists” often point to the “problem of underdetermination.” For any given theory that makes successful predictions about what happens in experimental conditions, there are countless other possible theories that make exactly the same predictions—and since they do, the experimental evidence in question is just as much reason to accept any of those theories as it is to accept our original one. Thus, the argument goes, we have no way of knowing whether our original theory is true, or one of the other “predictively equivalent” theories is true. SUGGESTED VIEWING How Occam's Razor changed the world With Johnjoe McFadden As an example of underdetermination, philosophers often offer this example. The evidence of fossils seems to provide reason to conclude that the universe is quite old; ancient fossils are what the “ancient universe” hypothesis predicts. But it’s also possible that God created an ancient-looking universe 200 years ago, complete with a “fake” fossil record for us to find, to make it look old. The existence of fossils is what that theory predicts too. So, the argument goes, the fossil record can’t be used as evidence that the universe is ancient; the fossil record supports the “200-year-old ancient-looking universe” theory just as much. The problem of underdetermination points out that, for any theory with supporting evidence, we could invent another completely different theory that predicts exactly the same evidence, and thus undermine that evidence’s ability to support the original theory.But this “argument from underdetermination” betrays a fundamental misunderstanding of what scientific reasoning is and how it works. To explain, let me use another rather strange (but very real and commonly discussed) philosophical thought experiment called “The Grue Problem.” The “Grue” ProblemSuppose I want to know what color emeralds are, so I observe a few, see that they all appear green, and form the theory that “all emeralds are green.” I thus predict that the next 100 emeralds I find will also appear to be green. And let’s say that happens, and so I thus conclude that my theory that all emeralds are green is true. Now, one might rightly point out that I don’t know for sure that all emeralds are green—I have not seen them all. Maybe some I haven’t found yet are blue. Fair enough. After all, we used to think that all swans were white, until we found some black ones. But let’s say that I go on a quest and collect every emerald in the universe—and, for the sake of the argument, let’s say I can do this, and can even know that I have every one of them. So, I collect them all, look at them all, and verify that they all appear green. Can’t I now rightly conclude that all emeralds are green?Inspired by the problem of underdetermination, a friend might argue that I cannot.Sure, they all appear green now—but there could be another kind of color called “grue.” Something is grue if it is green up to a certain point in time, but then spontaneously turns blue. And there could be an infinite number of “shades” of grue. Something that is one shade of grue will turn blue at noon today, but something that is another shade of grue will turn blue at noon tomorrow, etc. So yes, the emeralds appear green now; and since they haven’t turned blue yet, they are not some “past” shade of grue. But they might be some “future” shade of grue (e.g., they may turn blue at noon tomorrow). And since all future shades of grue are consistent with “being green up to this point in time,” the evidence you have is completely consistent with the notion that all emeralds are some future shade of grue, rather than green. Indeed, that they would appear green until now is what the “some future shade of grue” hypothesis predicts. So, we have just as much reason to conclude that all emeralds are some shade of grue as we do to conclude that they are green.You’re probably thinking “It’s not equally possible that the emeralds are grue; they are obviously green.” You are right! But explaining why your instinctive reaction to my friend’s argument is correct will help inform why van Fraassen’s “empiricist” is wrong and science actually does describe reality.The main mistake my friend makes is in thinking that the “empirical evidence” (of all the emeralds appearing green) is (or even should be) all I am using to draw the conclusion that all emeralds are green. It is not. I am also considering known facts about how colors typically work; things don’t usually change color, and when they do, they don’t do so suddenly, without cause, and all at once. So, even though the simple evidence of the emeralds all appearing green up to this point is consistent with them being some future shade of grue—that is even what the grue hypothesis “predicts”—it is still exceedingly unlikely that they are. The hypothesis that they are green is much more likely. Understanding science refutes the problem of underdetermination The misunderstanding about science that the “empiricist” pointing to “the problem of underdetermination” makes is similar to the one that my friend made. Science is not just about considering experimental evidence; in fact, it’s not even just about considering empirical evidence. As Ernan McMullin and many other philosophers of science have pointed out, the inference that makes science is “inference to the best explanation” (sometimes called “abduction” or “retroduction” by McMullin). While, depending on the circumstances, scientists use many different kinds of reasoning, science as a whole is, simply put, the process of considering multiple competing explanations and comparing them to certain criteria—explanatory criteria (the kinds of things explanations must be and do, by definition, to be a good explanation)—to see which explanation is the best.And these criteria do not deal only with empirical results. Yes, successful predictions raise the probability of a hypothesis, but it’s also the case that the more new assumptions a theory makes, the less likely it is to be true; every new assumption presents an opportunity for the theory to be false. (The fewer assumptions a theory makes, the simpler or “more parsimonious” it is said to be.) Likewise, the more existing evidence a theory contradicts, the less likely it is, because in order for a theory to be true, every piece of evidence it contradicts has to be somehow faulty. (The fewer established theories a new theory contradicts, the more “conservative” it is said to be.) And, obviously, the more something explains, the better explanation it is. (This is called having “scope.”) If a theory raises unanswerable questions, it’s not expanding our understanding, and thus is not wide-scoping. Scientists consider all these things when deciding which theory to accept, because the theory that adheres best to these explanatory criteria is most likely to be true.___the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth.___The reason the grue hypothesis is no good is because it invents an entirely new kind of color—not just a new shade, but an entirely different category of color (a different way colors work)—and thus is not parsimonious. It raises unanswerable questions about how and why emeralds would just spontaneously change from green to blue (and thus does not have wide scope). And it contradicts what is already well established about how color works (and thus is unconservative).The theories that the problem of underdetermination points to do the same thing. Yes, the theory that God created an “ancient-looking universe” (complete with an ancient-looking fossil record) two hundred years ago is also consistent with the empirical evidence (of a fossil record) that presently exists; but that theory is monumentally unparsimonious (it requires many extra assumptions about infinite entities) and not wide-scoping (it raises unanswerable questions about why God would do such a thing). So, I can rationally conclude that it is false.Indeed, the history of science includes many examples of theories that were rejected because they lacked parsimony and/or scope, even before their falsity (and the truth of their competing theory) was confirmed by observation. As I point out in my book, geocentrism was rejected by the scientific community because it lacked parsimony, almost 200 years before the observation of parallax confirmed that the Earth moves around the sun. And the continuum theory of matter was completely rejected by 1860, because it couldn’t explain chemical reactions or organize matter into a periodic table, even though the experiments that eventually confirmed atomic theory weren’t even proposed until the 1870s. Solving the best of a bad lot problemIn response, the “empiricists” are likely to object, this time pointing to the “best of a bad lot” problem. “We have no reason to conclude that an explanation that has been shown to be better than others is true because we have no guarantee that the true theory was among those that we were considering.” If you have a “lot” (a collection) of poor explanations, even the best one is not true.The responses to this problem, however, are numerous. Peter Lipton argues that the set of hypotheses that scientists consider are not just randomly selected and thus unlikely to contain a theory that is true; they use existing knowledge to home in on what is most likely to be true. A doctor trying to explain abdominal pain is not going to bother wondering whether demons are causing it; they are going to stick with things like appendicitis and kidney stones, because they are most likely. Further, despite its name, inference to the best explanation is not just the process of comparing hypotheses and accepting the best one; we also want one that is a good explanation in its own right. If it’s not, we are going to keep looking until we find an explanation that is. And while that process does not guarantee that we will come across the exact truth, it’s very likely that the theory that emerges as the best will be at least approximately true, and thus we will be justified in believing it. And lastly, as I point out in my book, although many theories not based in scientific evidence (like geocentrism and continuum theory) have been completely overturned, science almost always progresses by the refinement of scientifically established theories—not their replacement. (Although our sun is not the center of the universe, heliocentrism was our first step in understanding the Earth’s true place in the universe.) So even if a theory we accept today may not be completely right, accepting it is a step on the journey toward the complete truth. The example of atomic theoryNow, it’s worth pointing out that most empiricists are not skeptical of all scientific theories; they are only skeptical of the ones that hypothesize the existence of “unobservables.” It’s not like they think that round Earth, heliocentrism, and germ theory are just useful (but untrue) “instruments” for making predictions about how to most efficiently navigate the seas, predict planetary motion, and treat diseases. They admit that the Earth actually is round, that the planets revolve around the sun, and that germs exist and cause disease. These facts and entities can be observed; the theories that suggest they exist are true. It’s only when theories start hypothesizing the existence of unobservables—like electrons, or quantum fields—that can’t be observed directly, that we should start doubting the theories’ truth. And to be fair to van Fraassen, in this published work, he doesn’t really say that we should doubt the truth of such theories. Only that scientific reasoning does not rationally force us to accept them as true. Skepticism, or agnosticism, he argues, is warranted. SUGGESTED READING Science is based in metaphor By Andrew Reynolds But the history of atomic theory throws a monkey wrench into that argument. Atoms used to be unobservable; again, scientists first accepted the theory that they exist because it had such grandiose explanatory power. But then atoms were seen with electron microscopes. They thus moved into the category of the observable. But this didn’t substantially change anything about what scientists were justified in believing; it certainly didn’t change any “atomic skeptics’” minds. It just confirmed what everyone already knew! If the hypothesis that something exists clearly provides the best explanation for what we can observe, then the belief that it exists is what is rational. The fact that the thing itself is not technically observable does not make doubting its existence rational.What’s more, the atoms were seen with an electron microscope. But electrons are themselves unobservable. How can an electron microscope reveal an atom if electrons are not real? This leads us to what is famously known as Hilary Putnam’s “miracle argument.” It’s (not) a miraclePhilosopher Hilary Putnam’s miracle argument is somewhat famous. Basically, he argued that a scientific theory being able to repeatedly make successful predictions—even about unobservables—without being at least approximately true would require a “miracle.” In other words, it would be such an improbable occurrence that it could not rationally be believed—the better explanation for why scientific theories about unobservables make the right predictions is because the unobservable entities and structures they hypothesize exist.Van Fraassen has addressed this argument. Indeed, in his original article, where he references Alison Gopnik’s point about orgasms not being “necessary for procreation” even though the desire for orgasm “drives the creation of progeny,” he is pointing to his own argument about how organisms are not naturally selected by evolution to get true beliefs; to the extent that belief-forming processes are selected for, the ones that are selected are the ones that are useful for survival—not the ones that produce true beliefs. In the same way, van Fraassen argues, scientific theories are accepted, not because they are true, but because they aren’t falsified; they make successful predictions; that’s what makes them “stick around.” So, the fact that they make successful predictions (and thus became accepted) is not a reason to think they are true.This argument is similar to C. S. Lewis’s “argument from reason,” which he used to argue against evolution: “The truth of evolution undercuts our ability to know that it is true.” Lewis’ argument famously failed; Elizabeth Anscombe, by Lewis’s own admission, demolished Lewis in a debate on the topic, and I have explained elsewhere why modified versions of the argument fail as well. In short, it’s because it fails to recognize that a belief-forming process can make an organism more likely to survive because it reliably produces true beliefs. It is therefore not the case that beliefs generated by naturally selected belief-forming processes are automatically false or unjustified.In the same way, the reason a theory “sticks around” could be because it’s not falsified, because it “makes correct predictions.” But the reason it makes correct predictions is most likely because it is true. (In pointing this out, I am echoing the arguments of Musgrave, Lipton, Psillos, and Kitcher, who refuted van Fraassen’s argument and analogy long before his 2024 article.) It would be a huge coincidence that it could do so without being true. And that is the point of Putnam’s miracle argument. Thus, contrary to van Fraassen’s suggestion, the mere fact that a theory’s predictive success is why it “sticks around” or “becomes accepted” in the scientific community is not a reason to be skeptical about its truth. ConclusionLet me close by saying something about the fact that empiricists don’t doubt the truth of all scientific theories, just the ones that hypothesize unobservables. In today’s society, this theory is dangerous to espouse publicly. The nuance between being skeptical about all of science, and just the highly technical theories about unobservables, is guaranteed to be lost to the average reader. And there is so much unjustified skepticism and doubt about the findings of science and experts that a headline like “Science Does Not Describe Reality” could easily fuel the anti-science movement, worsen climate change denial and cause the next pandemic.This is why I believe it was important to still respond to van Fraassen’s article, a full two years after he wrote it. Not only, as I have argued, does it represent a philosophically inaccurate view of how scientific reasoning works and what scientific reasoning can do, but it is a dangerous view to boot. It should thus be rejected.
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National Forum To Convene on Cutting Edge Science that Drives Solutions In Harmony with Nature - Beyond Pesticides Daily News Blog
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