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Truth and Politics in the Age of Post-Truth
Get E-International Relations delivered to your inbox, free of charge. As you sign up, consider becoming a paid subscriber, or make a donation, to support our work. Subscribe This is an excerpt from Global Politics in a Post-Truth Era. You can download the book free of charge from E-International Relations. The term post-truth is by now so ubiquitous in describing the state of politics in the Western world and even beyond that the most pressing issue of the day appears to be about making democracy work in the era of post-truth rather than questioning the normalisation of the term itself in the first place. The critical turning point appeared to have occurred in 2016 when the term was chosen by the Oxford English Dictionary as ‘The Word of the Year.’ On its website, the Dictionary notes the transformation of post-truth from ‘being a peripheral term to being a mainstay in political commentary and connects ‘the spike in frequency’ directly with the Brexit referendum in the United Kingdom and the election of Donald J. Trump in the United States – both occurring in 2016. Paired with the noun ‘politics,’ post-truth is defined as an adjective ‘relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.’ The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first use of the term to a 1992 essay in The Nation by the playwright Steve Tesich as he reflected on the 1980s Iran-Contra scandal and the 1990–91 Gulf War: We are rapidly becoming prototypes of a people that totalitarian monsters could only drool about in their dreams. All the dictators up to now have had to work hard at suppressing the truth. We, by our actions, are saying that this is no longer necessary, that we have acquired a spiritual mechanism that can denude truth of any significance. In a very fundamental way we, as a free people, have freely decided that we want to live in some post-truth world (Tesich 1992, 13; emphasis added). He then continued, The Gulf War is over but the war at home goes on. The gulf between rich and destitute widens – between those of us who live in a modern post-industrial nation and those of us who live in the Third World countries of our inner cities. The present administration’s response to this internal crisis has shifted from benign to malignant neglect. The current levels of misery and decomposition of our cities and the economic gulags of our ghettos are acceptable. Since there is only so much hope to go around, there is a freeze on hope. The have-nots have now been reclassified as never-will-haves (Tesich 1992, 13). In the context of Tesich’s essay, truth includes both facts, as in what happens, and ‘moral absolutes,’ as in the ‘self-evident truths mentioned in our Constitution’ (Tesich 1992, 14). Together, these two notions of truth entail the obligation to both act and react. The two passages cited above show that even in the early post-Cold War years, Tesich was already deeply concerned that the American people are neither prepared to act on truth nor react to truth that is disconcerting, or what he calls ‘bad news’ (Tesich 1992, 12). Accordingly, Tesich’s insight as captured by the term post-truth is not that truth is irrelevant to what we know, but rather it is irrelevant to how we act. In contrast, ‘post-truth politics,’ as defined by Oxford as a term that pitches ‘objective facts’ against ‘emotion and personal belief’ such that the latter appears to have overtaken the former in shaping ‘public opinion’ and thereby, democratic politics. When Tesich’s post-truth politics and its current usage are juxtaposed, the two are in fact not identical in terms of what truth is and how it relates to politics. Against such consideration, this chapter provides a critical survey of selected historical events and theoretical considerations for the purpose of gaining a more nuanced understanding of the relation between truth and politics. Truth and Language One notable impact of post-truth politics is that language is being overtly deployed as a political weapon not only by politicians and those in power, but among the general population. It seems that once facts are irrelevant to the validity of what is being said, language becomes the platform for an all-out political contest in which what is said is no more than an act of will expressed as an assertion of power and/or an exercise in defiance. As early as in the writings of Thucydides (460–400 BCE), the vulnerability of logos – which is the human capacity for rational discourse in tumultuous times – was already noted. Thucydides belonged to a school of Greek thought which maintained that language is conventional and that the association between name and things is a result of ‘human use and habit’ rather than ‘nature or divine dispensation’ (Connor 1984, 99). The conventional nature of language means that it is incapable of providing its users with any independent criteria for judgement. In Thucydides’ study of the Peloponnesian War (431–405 BCE), the subversion of logos as seen in the manipulation of language was introduced through his account of the civil war in Corcyra (Thucydides 1972, 236-245). The war first broke out in 427 BCE between the pro-Athenian democratic faction and the pro-Spartan oligarchic faction before it spread to the rest of the Greek world. There was a general breakdown of law and order, resulting in extreme violence and death. Language underwent changes that were reflective of the events of the time. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) translated Thucydides’ description of the situation as follows: The received value of names imposed for signification of things, was changed into arbitrary. For inconsiderate boldness, was counted true-hearted manliness: provident deliberation, a handsome fear: modesty, the cloak of cowardice: to be wise in everything, to be lazy in everything... he that had been so provident as not to need to do the one or the other, was said to be a dissolver of society, and one that stood in fear of his adversary. In brief, he that could outstrip another in the doing of an evil act, or that could persuade another thereto that never meant it, was commended (Hobbes 1839–1845, 8: 348; Thucydides 1972, 242-243). What concerned Thucydides most was that the meanings of words are no more than linguistic conventions that require logos to support them. The Corcyrean civil war was a reminder that such capacity cannot be assumed. This is why history understood as an authentic account of what happens matters. Guided by logos, the historian’s task is ‘the search after truth’, which is established through ‘the absence of the fabulous,’ including ‘the rejection of myth and unverifiable stories’ (de Jonge 2017, 2). Thus, history plays an important role in facilitating the stability of language – without which distinctions and judgements cannot be rendered communicable. Just like Thucydides, Hobbes was a nominalist who subscribed to the view that there is no inherent meaning to words. Hobbes’ state of nature, where there is no common authority, is precisely one in which distinctions cannot be made. As Hobbes put it, there is ‘no Mine and Thine distinct’ nor is there distinction between ‘the notions of Right and Wrong, Justice and Injustice’ (1968, 188; emphasis in original). This is clearly an unsustainable condition for everyone. Behind Hobbes’ famous words that life in the state of nature is ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’ is his uncompromising argument for the ‘Leviathan’, which is described by the late American political theorist, Sheldon Wolin (1922–2015), as the ‘sovereign definer’ (Hobbes 1968, 186; Wolin 2004, 238–243). Accordingly, the social contract is importantly a ‘linguistic contract’ that binds all parties to ‘general names agreed upon’ (Peters 1979, 125; Hobbes 1968, 111). Through Thucydides and Hobbes, we can identify a line of thinking that sees politics as a contestation over the use of language, which is based on shared conventions and norms. Thus understood, politics is not a collective quest for the true nature of our being or an epistemological exercise in pursuit of true knowledge. Rather, politics is about humans living with one another by finding a shared language to communicate with one another on matters that affect them all. Truth is in that sense contingent on what is being said as opposed to setting the standard for it. In other words, truth is the embodiment of shareability among us. While truth as such ensures the viability of a political entity, truth by no means represents a normative standard to adjudicate among contesting actors in what they say, let alone in what they do. During Thucydides’ times, ancient China was also experiencing a tumultuous time as the ruling Zhou dynasty deteriorated into the period of the Warring States (481–221 BCE). This was when the rulers of Zhou no longer presided over the territories brought under its control through conquest. Instead of professing allegiance to the Zhou royalty, the lords of these territories became kings themselves to rule over their own land. The period was one marked by endless military campaigns as each of the seven major states aimed to conquer the rest (Lewis 1999). Yet, the period was also known for its intellectual vibrancy as different thinkers challenged the restoring of order among these warring states – including offering ideas and advice to rulers on good governance. Among these thinkers was Confucius (551–479 BCE). His thought, which came to be known as Confucianism, went on to become the state ideology of China from the Han dynasty (206 BCE–222 CE) until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1911 when China became a republic. The founding text of Confucianism was the Analects, which is a collection of dialogues between Confucius and his students as recorded by them. One key concept Confucius advanced is the ‘rectification of names’. Though the term only appears in one exchange in the Analects, it is considered a major aspect of Confucius’ thought. Generations of Confucian scholars from past and present, including Western academics, have debated over its interpretation (Makeham 2003). The passage in question reads as follows: Zi Lu said: ‘The monarch of the state of Wei wants you to govern the country, what is the first thing you plan on doing?’ Confucius said: ‘First it is necessary to rectify the names.’Zi Lu said: ‘Is that really what has to be done? You are being too pedantic, aren’t you now? How will you rectify these names?’Confucius said: ‘Zhong You, you are too unrefined. A gentleman, faced with a matter that he does not understand, takes a skeptical attitude. If names are not correct, one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, and if one cannot speak smoothly and reasonably, affairs cannot be managed successfully. If affairs cannot be managed successfully, rites and music will not be conducted. If rites and music are not conducted, punishments will not be suitable. And if punishments are not suitable, the common people will not know what to do. So, when the gentleman uses names, it is necessary to be able to speak so that people understand. If one can say it, one can definitely do it. A gentleman should not be careless with words’ (Analects 13:3 in Cao 2016, 148). This translation is offered by the contemporary philosopher Cao Feng. As Cao notes, the passage is what started the whole debate over ‘exactly what kind of names did Confucius... wish to rectify’ (Cao 2016, 148). Of the three major groups of interpretation examined by Cao, beginning with classical Confucian scholarship, one is arguably the most influential and certainly most pertinent to the issue of language and politics. This is the interpretation that was first associated with the Neo-Confucian master, Zhu Xi (1130–1200), who argued that the ‘rectification of names is simply the rectification of politics’ (Cao 2016, 149). Within this interpretive framework, rectification has the dual functions of correction and prescription by ensuring that predetermined hierarchical roles are strictly adhered to through following ‘the system of rites and propriety’ (Cao 2016, 151). In addition, the rectification of names entails ‘using names to rectify actuality’ (Cao 2016, 151). Yet Cao rejects this whole body of interpretive works by arguing that these were ideas developed later. Instead, Cao suggests the following: The original meaning of Confucius’ rectification of names may, then, be quite simple. Confucius did not mean to establish a concrete, normative system of “names”; rather, Confucius was simply the first person in history to realize or remark upon the importance of language in politics. As a politician, he noticed and foresaw the impact that the indeterminacy, ambiguity, and arbitrariness of names would have on politics. Confucius recognized the political consequences of language’s not accurately expressing meaning or not being accurately received by people. He realized the great role that names, as a means of distinguishing right and wrong and establishing norms, could play in society and politics (Cao 2016, 168). Scholarly debates aside, Cao’s view has the advantage of identifying an interpretation of this controversial exchange in the Analects that enables its readers to extrapolate from it the observation that the meaning of words depends as much on their users as on their interpreters; neither of which can be predetermined. Accordingly, a good ruler is someone who can speak without ambiguity to his subjects and make good his words through actions. Stated differently, Cao’s view on what concerned Confucius then, who was living through times of protracted political upheaval, is that language is an indispensable political tool for those in power and can be deployed by both good and bad rulers alike. To sum up, this historical survey shows that politics as a war of words is by no means a distinctive marker of contemporary politics nor the Western world. Be it ancient or current, east or west, language is subject to manipulation to serve political purposes and when there is an outright war of words that defies existing norms, it is indicative of a political situation in which people no longer share a language and truth becomes irrelevant. Accordingly, political order entails stability in language use. Truth and Politics As previously noted, current use of the term post-truth as an adjective to the term ‘politics’ suggests that once there was a time when politics aligned with truth. Indeed, if we start with Plato’s Republic as the key founding text of Western political thought, we see that the ideal polis (city-state of ancient Greece) is where truth and politics converge, and justice is achieved. Written around 380 BCE when Athens was still coping with its defeat by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War, the Republic is a defence of the rule of the ‘philosopher king’, defined as someone who is ‘guided by the truth’ and is ‘always and in every way’ in pursuit of the truth (Plato 1974, 490a). For Plato, truth converges with virtues and hence, letting the philosopher take charge of politics is to let the wisest and the most virtuous lead the less wise and the less virtuous even if it requires compulsion (Plato 1974, 499b). In Plato’s words, ‘…until the philosophers attain power in a city there will be no respite from evil for either city or citizens…’ (Plato 1974, 501e). The uncompromising rule of philosopher-kings is made palatable by the claim that we are all ‘earth- born brothers’ with random mixtures of gold, silver, bronze and iron, but only the gold can rule (Plato 1974, 414–415). Understandably, academic debates over the interpretation of Plato’s Republic revolve around the question of whether truth as attained in philosophy can be realised in politics as action and whether such a connection is even desirable. Without getting into the details of these scholarly exchanges, I suggest that they all share the concern that truth acquired through the rigorous process of philosophical reasoning is not without problem when applied to the real world of living humans. This is because not all humans are philosophers – and indeed, in Plato’s view, not everyone is capable of becoming a philosopher given the protracted and arduous training that one needs to endure to become one. Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), a highly influential political philosopher of the twentieth century, notes that ‘Plato was the first to introduce the division between those who know and do not act and those who act and do not know’ and that such a separation has remained ‘at the root of all theories of domination’ (Arendt 1958, 223, 225). What Arendt points out in this remark is not the gap between theory and practice, but rather that Plato provides the normative ground for those who know the truth to tell those who do not know what to do. Arendt herself took on the challenge of understanding the relationship between truth and politics through her analysis of Nazism and Stalinism. Arendt’s insight, which was controversial when The Origins of Totalitarianism was published in 1951, was to identify Nazism and Stalinism as representative of a new form of political rule – totalitarianism – making it distinct from ‘other forms of political oppression... such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship’ (Arendt 1973, 460). Arendt defines totalitarianism as a self- contained system of ideas driven by their ‘logic’ and marked by a mode of reasoning called ‘ideological thinking.’ Ideological thinking as such is a distinctive form of political reasoning defined by three characteristics. First, ideological thinking claims to provide a ‘total explanation’ of all historical happenings, encompassing the past, the present, and the future. Second, while ideological thinking is an attempt to account for ‘factual reality’ in its totality, this mode of thinking is paradoxically divorced from reality and experience. This is because experience, being rooted in specificity, is clearly limited in its claim to totality. It follows that as its third characteristic, ideological thinking aims to emancipate thought from the limitation imposed by experience through a ‘specific method of demonstration.’ The method involves arranging facts into an ‘absolutely logical procedure’ that starts from an ‘axiomatically accepted premise’. It is, in short, a ‘process of deduction from a premise’ – which is the only possible movement in the realm of logic that leads to one definitive conclusion. This is how the ‘logicality of ideological thinking’ provides the basis for total explanation and the ‘principle of action’ for totalitarian movement (Arendt 1973, 468–474). Stated differently, totalitarianism is a form of uncompromising idealism that exists in one’s head irrespective of shared reality as experienced. It is the perverse form of what Arendt later refers to as ‘rational truth’, which is the product of the ‘speculative mind’ that belongs to philosophy, mathematics and the sciences. The ‘speculative mind’ is the mind working on its way to generate axioms and theories by relying on the cognitive capacity of the human brain (Arendt 1977, 231). The presence of others has no bearing whatsoever on rational truth. In contrast, ‘factual truth’ is what happens when humans are ‘living and acting together’ (Arendt 1977, 231). Factual truth is therefore particular and temporal by definition. But more importantly, factual truth is ‘political by nature’ because it can only be validated in the context of the human community (Arendt 1977, 238). In other words, factual truth is about humans in their plurality rather than in their singularity. For factual truth to be sustainable, we need what Arendt calls ‘common sense’ – understood as ‘community sense’ (Arendt 1982, 72). There is also another distinction about truth that Arendt makes which is pertinent to understanding how totalitarianism works. The issue is whether the so-called totalitarian ideology is simply an unnecessarily cumbersome way of saying that it is an all-round and polished lie. Here, Arendt calls totalitarian ideology the ‘modern lie’ – in contrast to the ‘traditional lie’. The latter is restricted by two conditions: that it is a lie about the ‘particulars’ and that it deceives only the ‘enemy’ – which means that the liar is not engaged in self- deception. The modern lie, however, involves a ‘complete rearrangement of the whole factual texture’. It also intends to deceive everyone alike, to the extent that those who initiate the lie eventually ‘fall victims to their own falsehood’ (Arendt 1977, 249–254). This distinction between the traditional and modern lie is important. It indicates that not only is totalitarianism a lie, but the lie is in fact too big to fit into the standard meaning of the word. To tell a lie from truth, we need a common standard. In the case of a traditional lie, the common standard is precisely ‘the fabric of factuality’. As such, a lie always appears as a ‘tear’ to that fabric. Yet, modern lies require making a surrogate reality with a completely different context for facts to fit ‘without seam, crack, or fissure, exactly as the facts fitted into their original context’. Arendt notes that as long as those who concoct the surrogate reality are prepared to engage in self- deception to ‘create a semblance of truthfulness’, there is nothing to prevent ‘these new stories, images, and non-facts from becoming an adequate substitute for reality and factuality’ (Arendt 1977, 253–254). Totalitarianism therefore requires a person to stand outside of the system itself in order to make sense of it. Arendt points out that it is futile for us to argue with (for example) a Nazi or a Stalinist on race or class. To confront totalitarianism requires more than just a confrontation with specific facts. It is a more fundamental confrontation between reality as experienced and its total rejection. This means that Nazism and Stalinism are more than radical ways of conducting racial conflict or class struggle. Rather: Totalitarian politics – far from being simply antisemitic or racist or imperialist or communist – use and abuse their own ideological and political elements until the basis of factual reality, from which the ideologies originally derived their propaganda value– the value of struggle, for instance, or the interest conflicts between Jews and their neighbours – have all but disappeared (Arendt 1973, xv). Accordingly: The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced Communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (that is, the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (that is, the standards of thought) no longer exist (Arendt 1973, 474). Who then is the ‘ideal subject’ of totalitarianism? Although there is a revival of interest in Arendt’s observation on truth and politics since the onset of post- truth politics, not enough has been said about her reply to the question (Hyvönen 2018; Klinkler 2018; Lee 2019; Zerilli 2020). Yet if we take a look at Arendt’s portrait of this ideal subject, her view is even more pertinent to our current challenge. As a self-contained system of ideas that is detached from experience, totalitarian thinking offers consistency in ways that reality cannot. Arendt notes that this kind of consistency is especially appealing to those who have lost a sense of bearing in the world (Arendt 1973, 353). They constitute what she calls the ‘masses’. The ‘mass man’ is thus a highly isolated and atomised individual, who is ‘obsessed by a desire to escape from reality’ (Arendt 1973, 318, 352). In his ‘essential homelessness’ the mass man can ‘no longer bear its accidental, incomprehensible aspects’ (Arendt 1973, 352). This longing for escape from reality is a ‘verdict against the world’ in which one is ‘forced to live’ but ‘cannot exist’ (Arendt 1973, 352). Such a situation is ripe for the ‘revolt of the masses’ against ‘common sense,’ which is ‘the result of their atomisation, of their loss of social status’ and with it, the ‘whole sector of communal relationships in whose framework common sense makes sense’ (Arendt 1973, 352). In short, the masses are people who are considered to be ‘superfluous or can be spared … [who] cannot be integrated into any organisation based on common interest’ (Arendt 1973, 311). Whether one agrees with Arendt’s analysis of the social conditions in the interwar years that led to the formation of the ‘masses’, her portrait of the ‘mass man’ is a powerful account of what can happen to an individual who has become disposable to the society that they used to belong to. Hand in hand with this phenomenon is indeed the collapse of ‘common sense’ that leaves the dislodged individual scrambling for reconnection. By offering the masses a substitute reality validated by the ‘logic of an idea’ rather than by experience, totalitarianism makes it possible for them to live in a world where there is no condition of plurality. Between ‘facing the anarchic growth and total arbitrariness of decay’ and ‘bowing down before the most rigid, fantastically fictitious consistency of an ideology’, the masses will likely ‘choose the latter’ (Arendt 1973, 352). A world created by ideology, then, is more attractive to the masses not because ‘they are stupid and wicked, but because in the general disaster this escape grants them a minimum of self- respect’ by conjuring up ‘a lying world of consistency which is more adequate to the needs of the human mind than reality itself’ (Arendt 1973, 353). Moreover, it is precisely this ability to guarantee consistency that makes it possible for the leaders of totalitarian movements to demand ‘total, unrestricted, unconditional and unalterable loyalty of the individual member’ (Arendt 1973, 323). While this chapter is not a study of the social factors that led to specific contemporary developments such as the result of the Brexit referendum or the election of Donald Trump in 2016, Arendt’s ‘mass man’ seem to have found their counterparts among the supporters of Brexit and Trumpism. Studies of voters’ profiles in both events point to a disproportionate share of supporters from white male lower income backgrounds without university educations. These are individuals who have either already lost their jobs to globalisation or who are at high risk of losing their job with very little capacity to be retrained for the twenty-first century market economy of advanced industrialised states (BBC 2016; Pew Research Center 2018). In short, these displaced workers are part of the tapestry forming the modern equivalent of Arendt’s ‘mass man’ – ready to be the recruits of totalitarianism. Conclusion If we step back to take a more comprehensive approach to the relationship between truth and politics, both historically and theoretically, it is not so obvious that 2016 is a defining moment. From ancient China and ancient Greece to our so-called post-truth age, the indeterminacy of language appears to be a persistent political challenge. Language is always open to manipulation by its users to serve power. Nonetheless, the tendency these days is to single out the ubiquity of social media and the proliferation of Internet platforms as the incubator for the countless cyberwars of words that in turn fuel the real world of politics. In this context, language is no longer the conveyor of objective facts and accurate information, but rather the medium for expressing subjective opinions and feelings, as captured by the Oxford Dictionary’s definition of the term ‘post-truth politics’. In contrast, the historical approach used in this chapter shows that it is in fact too easy to point the figure at the Internet and digital communication for the political challenge that we face today. What is being suggested here is that with or without the Internet, language, be it used to convey facts or emotions, is simply a tool for communication that humans have invented. While language per se cannot adjudicate what is true or not true, what is right or wrong, it embodies such capacity when language is a shared norm. That shared norm cannot be sustained without some semblance of cohesion in any given community. Any war of words, irrespective of its platform, is indicative of the breakdown of such cohesiveness. Returning to the original context in which the term post-truth politics was first used by Steve Tesich helps to identify the important distinction between truth as the standard for knowledge and truth as the standard for action. The two do not necessarily coincide. Placed in the context of the history of political thought, this distinction is in fact at the heart of Plato’s Republic. Yet when the philosopher as the quintessential bearer of truth becomes king, the polis that he rules over is far from the ideal of a just state that it purports to be. Instead, it is one that is held together by lies and coercion. What Arendt reveals through her study of Nazism and Stalinism is that it is dangerous for the kind of truth that philosophy generates – ‘rational truth’ – to become the guide to politics. Politics guided by rational truth can only be uncompromising and follows a logic of its own that cannot afford the ambiguity and indeterminacy of reality as lived experiences of humans. A world of post-truth politics can be an opportunity for a new kind of politics if it is indeed about dismantling the idea that truth is the ideal that politics should strive for. But as it stands, the post-truth politics of today is more about invoking a past that never exists to judge the presence as a crisis in naming when the real crisis is about rebuilding a shared space that has room for all – be they of the left, right or centre; cosmopolitan or parochial; civic-minded or self-centred; liberal-minded or bigoted. Politics is and always will be about striving for that space, without which no human can thrive. References Arendt, Hannah. 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Arendt, Hannah. 1973. The Origins of Totalitarianism. Rev. ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Arendt, Hannah. 1977. “Truth and Politics.” In Between Past and Future, 227–264. New York: Penguin Books. Arendt, Hannah. 1982. Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, edited by Ronald Beiner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2016. “Brexit vote: The breakdown.” BBC News, December 7, 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-38227674 Cao, Feng. 2016. “A New Examination of Confucius’ Rectification of Names.” Journal of Chinese Humanities 2: 147–171. https://doi-org.subzero.lib. uoguelph.ca/ doi/ 10.1163/23521341-12340032. Connor, W. Robert. 1984. Thucydides. Princeton: Princeton University Press. de Jonge, Casper C. 2017. “Dionysius of Halicarnassus on Thucydides.” in The Oxford Handbook of Thucydides, edited by Sara Forsdyke, Edith Foster, and Ryan Balot. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780199340385.013.17 https://www-oxfordhandbooks-com.subzero. lib.uoguelph.ca/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199340385.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199340385 Hyvönen, Ari-Elmeri. 2018. “Careless Speech: Conceptualizing Post-Truth Politics.” New Perspectives 26 (3): 31–55. https://www.proquest.com/ scholarly-journals/careless-speech-conceptualizing-post-truth/ docview/2204515132/se-2?accountid=11233. Hobbes, Thomas. 1839–1845. The English Works of Thomas Hobbes, edited by Sir William Molesworth. London: John Bohn. Vol. 8. Klinkner, Melanie. 2018. “Reasonable Truth.” International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics 14 (3): 393–99. doi:10.1386/macp.14.3.393_7. Lee, Haiyan. 2019. “When Nothing Is True, Everything Is Possible: On Truth and Power by Way of Socialist Realism.” PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 134 (5). Cambridge University Press: 1157–64. https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2019.134.5.1157 Lewis, Mark E. 1999. “Warring States Political History.” In The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC, edited by Michael Loewe and Edward Shaughnessy, 587–650. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Makeham, John. 2003. “Zheng ming (Rectification of names).” In RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism, edited by Xinzhong Yao. Vol. 2: 813-814. New York: Routledge. Oxford Languages, n. d. “Word of the Year 2016.” Accessed 19 August 2017. https://languages.oup.com/word-of-the-year/2016/ Peters, Richard. 1979. Hobbes. Westport: Greenwood Press. Pew Research Center. 2018. “An examination of the 2016 electorate, based on validated voters.” Report, August 9, 2018. https://www.pewresearch.org/ politics/2018/08/09/an-examination-of-the-2016-electorate-based-on- validated-voters/ Plato. 1974. Republic. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett. Tesich, Steve. 1992. “Watergate Syndrome: A Government of Lies.” The Nation: 12-14. January 6/13, 1992. Thucydides. 1972. The Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. Wolin, Sheldon. 2004. Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Westen Political Thought. Expanded Edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Zerilli, Linda M. G. 2020. ‘Fact-Checking and Truth-Telling in an Age of Alternative Facts.’ Le foucaldien 6, no. 1: 2, 1–22. Theresa Man Ling Lee is an Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Guelph (Canada). Lee is a political theorist who specializes in contemporary political thought. Her research and teaching areas include continental philosophy, Marxism and critical theory, feminism, postmodernism, philosophy of social science, psychoanalysis, multiculturalism, human rights, disability studies, modern Chinese political thought and comparative political theory. Lee has published on a wide range of subjects in these areas, including intercultural pedagogy and the challenges of teaching as a person with multiple minority designations in a Canadian university classroom.
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By Brad Brooks COLUMBIA FALLS, Montana, Sept 16 (Reuters) - More than 15 years after the U.S. Supreme Court reshaped American politics with its Citizens United campaign finance ruling, Montana voters will decide this November whether to make their state the first in the nation to bar corporations ...
Fuckin Politics (2003) by Yoshitomo Nara
Available for sale from uJung Art Center, Yoshitomo Nara, Fuckin Politics (2003), Color lithograph (open edition), 49 × 67.5 cm
The entwinement of religion and politics in modern life
Michael Wear, CEO of the Center for Christianity and Public Life, explained that religion and politics are essential and coexisting aspects of modern life on Monday. “What is essential to understand is that both the religious, the spiritual and political are essential aspects of life as it is today,” Wear said at the Memorial Union....
The Hidden Divide That Shapes Our Politics
I believe that public policy should be directed toward the common good. Others think that impinges on people’s freedom. We need to be honest about this dispute.
Big-money donations poison British politics. We can stop the mega-rich buying access and influence
I’ve seen how imbalances in campaign spending can distort democracy. The multi-million-pound gifts to Reform must act as a final wake-up call, says former UK prime minister Gordon Brown
Why Trump is all-in on AI despite the warnings
The US president has pushed the issue to the forefront of American politics - even at the risk of losing supporters.
Ashes of politics and the preservation of memory
From the perspective of Alija Izetbegovic, genocide is not merely a political crime, but an existential sin committed against the dignity with which God...
Germany Politics
German Chancellor Friedrich Merz arrives for the Cabinet meeting at the Chancellery in Berlin, Germany, Wednesday, Sept. 16, 2026. (AP Photo/Markus Schreiber)
The fox is guarding the healthcare hen house
In the United States, seeking and affording care is a risky venture. The central purpose of the healthcare industry should be to equitably provide care people need at an affordable cost. It should provide services that heal individuals and families and keep people safe and healthy. Instead, much of our healthcare system has evolved to […]
The fox is guarding the healthcare hen house
In the United States, seeking and affording care is a risky venture. The central purpose of the healthcare industry should be to equitably provide care people need at an affordable cost. It should provide services that heal individuals and families and keep people safe and healthy. Instead, much of our healthcare system has evolved to […]
Trump’s North Korea outreach is about U.S. politics
Pyongyang’s shifting priorities leave Washington with little leverage.
Congress races to stake out positions on AI
The fast-moving technology represents a rare thing in American politics: a policy arena where the entrenched political parties don’t yet have calcified positions.
The Politics of Shared Scarcity
Five weeks before the war against Iran began, the Pentagon published a strategy warning that the United States could find itself facing simultaneous major conflicts across several theaters.
When Politics Enters the Pasture: Can Northern Kenya Prevent an Electoral Crisis?
What happens when the very things pastoralists are seeking to protect become instruments of electoral competition?
The End of the Gubernatorial Naysayer?
Only four states have elected governors from the opposing party of the sitting president over the last two or more cycles.
Daniel McCarthy: The immigration politics of a felon’s pardon
How far will New York Gov. Kathy Hochul go to keep immigrant criminals in this country? So far, she’ll even pardon a man convicted of an aggravated felony, if that’s what it takes to prevent the United States Supreme Court from setting a restrictionist precedent. Keisy Guerrero Mariano is a Dominican who spent two years […]
Washington judges defend Supreme Court candidate amid partisan politics dispute
(The Center Square) — A group of 62 current and former Washington judges is defending state Supreme Court candidate Sean O’Donnell after his opponent accused him of pursuing a partisan
Conspiracy and politics: How a man ran a St. Louis County city from behind bars
While in the St. Louis County jail, now-former Riverview Mayor Michael Cornell made significant changes in the city’s government and police department, jail call recordings obtained by First Alert 4 Investigates uncovered.
Editorial: Politics hurts economy
The longest serving woman in the history of the United States Congress is putting her political interests ahead of the economic interests of northwest Ohio. ...
GOP shifts message on costs as Iran war drags on: From the Politics Desk
Plus, the Supreme Court rejects Trump and Republicans’ election plans.
Politics in plain sight: Social media and surveillance culture
Share your location on Snap Map and the Instagram map. Take a picture of a stranger doing something stupid, then send it to everyone you know. Post your friends, your family, your everyday habits, and special occasions. If it doesn’t end up online, did it really happen? In our ever-more-digital world, constant documentation is almost...
What climate change politics can teach us about the AI apocalypse debate: Philip Bump
Philip Bump argues that the politics around AI risk, China and corporate power carry familiar echoes from the climate change fight.
‘Live Laugh Love’ Untangles the Politics of White Christian Women
In a new book, ‘Jesus and John Wayne’ author Kristin Kobes Du Mez looks behind the shiplap.
10th Circuit clears path for completion of Denver Water reservoir expansion
The Colorado-based federal appeals court ruled on Tuesday that Denver Water may complete its long-running project to increase the capacity of its Boulder County dam, disagreeing with a trial judge’s finding that the federal government acted unlawfully in issuing a permit. Six environmental groups challenged Denver Water’s plan to store more water for the 1.5 million […]
AI apocalypse debate echoes climate politics: Philip Bump
Philip Bump argues that the politics around AI risk, China and corporate power carry familiar echoes from the climate change fight.
Letter: Party politics in Montgomery County are nothing new
Contributed commentary from Monica M. Meeks on the election of Rashidah Leverett to chair the Montgomery County Commission.
When worldbuilding impulses merge with real world politics
“Reactionary Worldbuilding,” a book co-edited by comparative literature scholar Anindita Banerjee, explores how speculative fiction and worldbuilding have influenced extremist ideologies and political movements.
Sneaker Politics x Timberland Premium 6-Inch Waterproof Boot Rodeo
Timberland's iconic Premium 6-Inch Waterproof Boot is getting two limited-edition releases with cowboy boot-inspired details from Sneaker Politics.
Vance steers clear of AI regulation during ‘rah-rah political speech’ for House GOP
Vice President JD Vance did not address calls for guardrails to be placed on artificial intelligence development during a Tuesday morning meeting with the House Republican conference. The vice president spoke to GOP lawmakers at the Republican National Committee as a final pep talk heading into the November elections. But multiple GOP members emerging from […]
Amid national backlash, Patel throws support behind Flock cameras
FBI Director Kash Patel on Tuesday praised Flock cameras as being a useful tool for federal investigators, touting their use to help track down criminals. The prolific use of Flock cameras by private businesses, police departments, local districts, and states nationwide to automatically record the license plates of all passing vehicles has sparked scrutiny in […]
Thune says he is open to diesel export ban to ease record-high prices
Senate Majority Leader John Thune (R-SD) said he is willing to consider a ban on diesel exports to help ease the run-up in prices caused by supply constraints from the conflicts in the Middle East and Ukraine. “We’ll be looking at any proposal that is a viable solution, but I do think if we have […]
Blanche vows DOJ is ‘not protecting people’ with classified 9/11 documents
Attorney General Todd Blanche on Monday committed to releasing more government records related to Saudi Arabia’s possible connections to 9/11, in response to family members of those who died during the attacks who have fought for more information on the issue. On the 25th anniversary of 9/11 last week, several family members attended a New […]
Colorado Supreme Court clarifies limits on belated requests for civil jury trials
The Colorado Supreme Court clarified on Monday that civil litigants can change their mind and seek a jury trial after the lawsuit is filed, so long as the amended complaint raises new issues that did not exist before. The Colorado Constitution does not contain the right to a jury trial in civil cases. Instead, in […]
Judge blocks Kennedy Center board from putting Trump’s name on the building or grounds in any way
WASHINGTON (AP) — A federal judge blocked the Kennedy Center on Tuesday from returning President Donald Trump ’s name to the iconic performing arts venue in a move meant to recognize his renovation efforts, saying it would violate an earlier ruling that his name was illegally added to the building. Judge Christopher Cooper ruled that, […]
China can block citizens from leaving the country over national security or tech export violations
BEIJING (AP) — New border control rules taking effect in China on Tuesday could ban citizens from leaving the country if they engage in illegal activity that endangers national or industrial security. The rules, part of a broader overhaul of border regulations, reflect in part heightened government concern about the export of technology at a […]
Senate is to vote on cryptocurrency regulation as Democrats push back on Trump investments
WASHINGTON (AP) — The Senate is set to vote Tuesday on whether to move forward with legislation to create a new regulatory framework for cryptocurrency, a pivotal election-year test for the $2.3 trillion market as many Democrats say it doesn’t go far enough to rein in President Donald Trump’s investments. The vote, just two months […]
Tech CEOs call for AI regulation. Trump and Congress are not rushing to act
WASHINGTON (AP) — The technology industry’s increasingly urgent warnings about the potential harm of artificial intelligence are slamming into political intransigence in Washington, offering a fresh test of the federal government’s willingness and ability to confront what may become a defining issue of the era. President Donald Trump is leading the opposition to recent calls […]
Here's What Shapiro's Huge Edge Over Garrity In National Campaign Contributions Looks Like
by Charlie Wolfson, Pittsburgh's Public SourceSeptember 14, 2026 Pittsburgh's Public Source is an independent nonprofit newsroom serving the Pittsburgh region. Sign up for our free newsletters. Gov. Josh Shapiro is barrelling toward Election Day Nov. 3 with an overwhelming financial advantage over his challenger, state Treasurer Stacy Garrity. Shapiro, a…
Letter | Too much sour grapes in politics
Dear Editor: What I find most disturbing about today's politics is rising number of sour grapes comments.
The sinister influence of crypto billionaires on our politics
Letters: Readers respond to the news that Christopher Harborne has given £36m to Reform UK, matching a donation from Ben Delo
Whose Tradition? The Global South and the Politics of the Tradwife Narrative
The fundamental question is not just whether the tradwife is anti-feminist, but what happens when one model of the "ideal woman" becomes a global aspiration through digital platforms.
Polling turns politics into one big game. There are too many of them – and that does us no good
Surely that’s the lesson the Reform polling furore should teach us. Politics should be about actually helping people, not mastering the line on a graph, says Guardian columnist Jonathan Liew
September 15 Playbook: Mail Voting Returns to Status Quo
✌️ It’s Tuesday. 49 days until the midterms 🎶 Your Morning Pick Me Up. Birthday. The Beatles PA Weather☀️ Blairsville | Sunny, 80🌤️ Mansfield | Mostly Sunny, 69☀️ Palmyra | Sunny, 77 PA Sports ⚾ Phillies (83-67, +1.5 GB WC) | Atlanta 9-4 | Tue at Washington⚾ Pirates (75-75) | Chicago…
Prominent Greek neo-Nazi exits prison and vows return to politics
Kassidiaris was serving a 13-year sentence as a senior figure in the criminal organisation, linked for years to attacks on migrants and political opponents and to the 2013 murder of anti-fascist rapper Pavlos Fyssas.
Power and politics from up North
Utilities’ suit against hydro provider stirs political debate
Georgia politics: Mail ballot ruling, Cobb plans, AI voting concerns
From a major U.S. Supreme Court decision affecting mail ballots to new concerns about artificial intelligence and Georgia's voting system, several developments could affect voters ahead of the midterms.
UK trade unions warn against ‘Americanisation of our politics’ from big political donations
Bosses call union funding ‘cleanest money in politics’ as they stop short of backing cap after Reform UK given £72m
Bo French pours more poison into state politics
Candidate injects racism into jubilant UT football victory, tarnishing a joyous moment.
Washington’s AI response falls into predictable patterns: From the Politics Desk
Plus, an early development in the 2028 presidential race.
The Women Fighting for Fewer Rights
Two recent books examine why women embrace a politics that puts them last.
Art, surveillance and the politics of memory in Southeast Asia
Moral policing and repression across SE Asia increasingly target artists, especially queer and trans creators, threatening cultural expression.
Bernie Sanders and Steve Bannon to share a stage to promote curbs on AI
The poles of U.S. politics are coming together over AI. Sanders and Bannon will appear at the "Pro-Human Assembly" in Washington, D.C., to convince Congress to work faster to curb the impact of AI.
Personnel note: Angela Bonds joins Better Together
'Better Together has built an incredible model that brings people together to strengthen families before they reach a crisis.'
Migration, belonging and the politics of cultural visibility
In the run-up to Sweden's 2026 election, far-right parties treated the hijab as proof that migrants neither belong nor can be assimilated. Azher Hameed Qamar argues that this debate reveals a democratic tension. Does equality demand sameness? Or does it protect participation despite cultural differences
Infrastructure make-or-breaks
Way back in the early 1980s, when my military career was just kicking off, we the “finger-on-the-button” missileer types underwent yet another disaster preparation exercise at my base, F.E. Warren up in Cheyenne, Wyoming. Such events usually centered around simulated attacks on a missile site, or perhaps a simulated truck bomb at the front gate. […]
Next governor should fix dysfunctional CU Board of Regents
Earlier this year, the governor and state legislature finally agreed to revamp the board of directors at the Regional Transportation District, downsizing the board while adding appointed members (Polis signs RTD overhaul bill aimed at rebuilding transit ridership, Colorado Politics, May 27). Hopefully the state’s next governor will convince the legislature to fix another problematic […]
Inside Iowa Politics: Former presidential candidate O’Malley on Democrats’ 2026 chances
Former presidential candidate Martin O'Malley explained why he feels confident about Democrats' chances in 2026 elections.
Inside Iowa Politics: Former presidential candidate O’Malley on Democrats’ 2026 chances
Former presidential candidate Martin O'Malley explained why he feels confident about Democrats' chances in 2026 elections.
Inside Iowa Politics: Former presidential candidate O’Malley on Democrats’ 2026 chances
Former presidential candidate Martin O'Malley explained why he feels confident about Democrats' chances in 2026 elections.
Inside Iowa Politics: Former presidential candidate O’Malley on Democrats’ 2026 chances
Former presidential candidate Martin O'Malley explained why he feels confident about Democrats' chances in 2026 elections.
Politics, Pixels and Power
The White House has turned political messaging into an arcade game, and the result is less funny that it seems. On Sept. 3, a collection of five retro-style games designed around President Donald Trump’s policies were launched on the White House’s website. The games take familiar arcade throwbacks and give them a MAGA makeover, turning...
Kansas Republican gubernatorial candidate reflects on political journey
Ty Masterson, Kansas' senate president and Republican gubernatorial candidate, discusses with Kansas Reflector senior reporter Tim Carpenter his journey into politics. From the housing industry to local government to the highest ranking position in the state senate, Masterson says his experience equips him to be Kansas' next governor.
Colorado mail voting unchanged after Supreme Court rules on Trump order
The U.S. Supreme Court Monday decided that states should keep sending out mail ballots under the same processes they’ve used for years.
Erik Valera questions politics, community and urban planning through art
The two-time town council candidate turned his recycled campaign signs into paintings.
Row over Reform's mega donations has mileage in it yet
The £72m heading towards Reform UK's coffers is transforming the debate at Westminster about politics and money.
Gavin Newsom says he won’t run for president if Kamala Harris does
The pair share deep roots in California politics.
How politics have mixed into college football programming ahead of midterms
Sen. Ted Cruz, the Power Four football conferences and top coaches are pushing a new bill that some athletes say would upend college sports. And ahead of the midterms, billions of dollars are being spent on political ads, including during sports programming. NBC News' Ryan Chandler reports on how Saturdays are starting to look more like an Election Day.
Why is JD Vance Campaigning in Kansas, a Red State?
Why is JD Vance campaigning in a red state?
Polis announces winners of ‘Governor for a Day’ contest
Colorado Gov. Jared Polis announced the two winners of his “Governor for a Day” competition, which lets seventh- and eighth-grade students shadow him throughout a typical workday. “I was so blown away watching the inspirational videos that young Coloradans made about our state and why they want to be Governor for a Day, that I […]
JD Vance campaigns for Sen. Roger Marshall, calls out Adam Hamilton's politics
Vance promoted Marshall's work against credit card companies and medical background.
Goo Goo Dolls’ John Rzeznik refuses to lecture fans on politics
Goo Goo Dolls frontman John Rzeznik said he won’t lecture fans about politics at concerts, arguing people from “every political stripe” can come together for the music.
Trump's $5,000 checks turn politics into shameless vote buying
"Money is the mother's milk of politics," said Jesse M. Unruh, who in the 1960s was a powerful Democratic politician and speaker of the California State Assembly.
Banking scandal rocks Brazil’s politics and the country’s presidential election in October
After ten months of investigation, the Banco Master case points to banker Daniel Vorcaro managing to take the country’s political system hostage.
Colorado Supreme Court upholds constitutionality of new ‘reasonable doubt’ definition
The Colorado Supreme Court placed its stamp of approval on Monday on a revised definition of “reasonable doubt” that defendants have repeatedly challenged as unconstitutional in the three years since its unveiling. To date, multiple Court of Appeals decisions have endorsed the constitutionality of the current phrasing, which resembles the instruction given in Colorado’s federal […]
The Latest Sneaker Politics Collab Takes on the Classic Timberland 6-Inch Boot
Sneaker Politics is bringing more southern charm to its collab archive with a pair of black Timberland 6-Inch Boots. Find images and info here.
Mesa County judge suspended, Missy Woods sentenced
Welcome to Court Crawl, Colorado Politics’ roundup of news from the third branch of government. The Colorado Supreme Court has suspended a judge as his misconduct investigation unfolds, plus a former state DNA analyst has been criminally sentenced for her own misconduct. Supreme Court news • The Supreme Court has temporarily suspended Mesa County Court Judge […]
When everything is politics on campus
Sociologist Neil Gross argues polarization undermining education opportunities, lays out how students might change things
Trump’s $5,000 dividend requires congressional approval, Mike Johnson says
House Speaker Mike Johnson (R-LA) argued that President Donald Trump’s controversial $5,000 dividend proposal requires congressional approval, though he shied away from overt criticism of the measure. Trump’s promise to divvy out $5,000 to every U.S. citizen at the Republicans’ midterm convention last week sent shockwaves around the country and within the Republican Party. Johnson […]
Vault: Credit card politics on the trail
Scranton Mayor Paige Cognetti is vowing to crack down on credit card fees as part of her campaign to flip Rep. Rob Bresnahan’s seat in Northeastern Pennsylvania.
EPA is set to eliminate rule that limits planet-warming greenhouse gas emissions from power plants
WASHINGTON (AP) — The Environmental Protection Agency is expected to repeal rules that limit planet-warming greenhouse gas emissions from power plants fueled by coal and natural gas, an action that Administrator Lee Zeldin has said would remove billions of dollars in costs for the industry and help “unleash” American energy. The rule change, proposed last […]
Vance says AI doom warnings from tech CEOs feel like a ‘Trojan horse’
Vice President JD Vance is skeptical of artificial intelligence CEOs calling for a development slowdown, comparing the calls to a “Trojan horse.” Vance told reporters on Monday that President Donald Trump‘s administration is concerned about the speed at which frontier model development is happening but would prefer to “regulate smartly,” considering the benefits and risks […]
REP. BOEBERT: FIGHTING FOR EVERY COLORADO RURAL HOSPITAL ON THE EASTERN PLAINS
Congresswoman Lauren Boebert (R-CO) published an op-ed in Colorado Politics highlighting her extensive record fighting for rural hospitals.
Police Benevolent Association, NRA Political Victory Fund back Byron Donalds in Governor's race
Significant endorsements continue to come in as the campaign heads toward the stretch run.